CLIMATOLOGY AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

UNIT I.
CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT
Factors that determine climate of a place – Components of Climate
– Climate classifications for building designers in tropics – Climate
characteristics. Human body heat balance – Human body heat loss
– Effects of climatic factors on human body heat loss – Effective
temperature –Human thermal comfort – Use of C.Mahony’s tables
 CLIMATE AND HUMAN COMFORT

• Climatology is the study of climate of a place and its elements

• Climate is an integration in time of the physical states of the

atmospheric environment, characteristics of a certain geographical
location

• Weather describes the variations which occur in the atmosphere on a

daily basis, whereas climate is an integration in time of the typical
weather condition found at a place.

• Tropical climates are those where heat is the dominant problem where
for the buildings serve to keep the occupants cool, rather than warm,
where the mean temperature is not less than 20 degree C.
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• The Earth's Climatic Zones
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
• Solar Radiation- Quality
• Solar Radiation- Quantity
• Tilt of the Earth’s axis
• Radiation at the earth’s surface
• The earth’s thermal Balance
• Winds-Thermal Forces
• Trade winds- the coriolis force
• Mid-latitude westerlies
• Polar winds
• Annual wind shifts
• Influence of Topography
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Solar Radiation- Quality

• The earth receives almost all its energy from the sun in the form of
radiation

• Sun is the dominating influence on climates

• The spectrum of solar radiation extends from 290 to 2300 nm

• Spectral energy distribution varies with altitude due to the filtering effect
of the atmosphere.
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Solar Radiation- Quantity
• The radiation reaching the upper surface of the atmosphere is taken as
the solar constant- 1395 W/m² ±2% due to variations output of sun itself
and ± 3.5 %due to changes n the earth-sun distance.
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Tilt of the Earth’s axis
• The earth rotates around its own axis and takes 24 hours/1 day
• The axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5º
• Maximum intensity is received on a plane normal to the direction of
radiation
• Due to the tilted position the area receiving the maximum intensity
moves north and south between the tropic of cancer and tropic of
capricorn which is the main causes of seasonal changes.
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Tilt of the Earth’s axis
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Tilt of the Earth’s axis
Factors Determining Climate of a place
Tilt of the Earth’s axis
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Radiation at the earth’s surface
The earth – sun relationship affects the amount of radiation received at a
particular point on earth’s surface in three ways
 Cosine law
 Atmosphere depletion
 Duration of sunshine
• Cosine law states that the intensity on a tilted surface equals the normal
intensity times the cosine of the angle of incidence.
• Ic=Ib xcos ß
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Solar Radiation- Quality
The sun’s position on the sky hemisphere can be specified by two angles:
Solar altitude angle
The vertical angle at the point of observation between the horizon plane
and the line connecting the sun with the observer
Solar azimuth angle
The angle at the point of observation
measured on a horizontal plane
between the northerly direction
and a point on the horizon circle,
where it is intersected by the arc
of a vertical circle, going through
the zenith and the sun’s position.
North - 0 or 360 deg.
East - 90 deg.
South -180 deg.
West -270 deg.
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Radiation at the earth’s surface
 Atmosphere depletion
• The absorption of radiation by ozone, vapours and dust particles in the
atmosphere
• The lower the solar altitude angle the longer the path or radiation
through the atmosphere, thus a smaller part reaches the earth’s surface

 Duration of sunshine
• Is the length of the daylight period
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
The earth’s thermal Balance
• The total amount of heat absorbed by the earth each year is balanced
by a corresponding heat loss.
The earth’s surfaces releases heat by three processes:
• By long wave radiation to cold outer space-84 % re radiation abosorbed
in the atmosphere, only 16% escapes to space.
• By evaporation- the earth’s surface is cooled as liquid water changes
into water vapour and mixes with air
• By convection- air heated by contact with the warm earth surface
becomes lighter and rises to the upper atmosphere where it dissipates
its heat to space.
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
The earth’s thermal Balance
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Winds-Thermal Forces
• Winds are basically convection currents in the atmosphere tending to
even out the differential heating of various zones.
• At the maximum heating zone air is heated by the hot surface, it
expands, its pressure is decreased it becomes lighter, rises vertically
and flows off at a high level towards colder regions.
• Part of this air having cooled down at the high level, descends to the
surface in the subtropic regions from where the cooler heavier air is
drawn in towards the equator from both north and south.
Inter tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) is the area where the air rises,
where the northerly and southerly winds meet and where the tropical
front is formed. This area experience completely calm condition or very
light breezes of irregular directions and is known as doldrums.
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Trade winds- the coriolis force
• The atmosphere which is light in weight and behaves as fluid rotates
with the earth.
• This has a tendency to lag behind the earth’s rate of rotation where this
rotation is the fastest- at the equator.
• There is a slippage at the boundary layer between the earth and its
atmosphere causes by what is known as coriolis force which is
experienced as the wind blowing in a direction opposite to that of the
earth’s rotation.
• The actual wind is the resultant of thermal forces and the coriolis forces
-north easterly winds and south easterly winds also known as north east
and south east trade winds.
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Mid-latitude westerlies
Around 30º N and S there are two bands of continually high barometric
pressure.
Wind in these zones are typically light and variable
Between 30 and 60ºN and south strong westerly winds prevail blowing in
the same direction as the earths rotation
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Polar winds
• Towards the poles from latitudes 60º N and S the air flow patterns come
under the influence of thermal factors.
• Air at the surface moves from the coldest to the slightly warmer
regions- away from the poles.
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Factors Determining Climate of a place

Annual wind shifts

• During the course of each year the global wind pattern shifts from north
to south and back again remaining symmetrical about the inter tropical
convergence zone.

• As a consequence of this annual shift most regions of the earth

experience seasonal changes not only in temperature but also in wind
directions and in rainfall.
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Factors Determining Climate of a place
Influence of Topography
• The force, direction and moisture content of air flows are strongly
influenced by topography.
• Air can be diverted or funnelled by mountain ranges.
• The orientation of mountains to the prevailing wind affects precipitation.
Windward slopes, those facing into the wind, experience more
precipitation. Leeward sides of mountains are in the rain shadow and
thus receive less precipitation.
• Air temperatures are affected by slope and orientation as slopes facing
into the Sun will be warmer than those facing away.
• Temperature also decreases as one moves toward higher elevations.
• Humidity of air will vary with rate of evaporation of moisture from the
surface of earth.
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Climatic Elements
• The main climatic elements, that make up the weather and climate
of a place,regularly measured by meteorological stations, and
published in summary form are:

 Temperature - dry-bulb temperature, expressed in ºC

 Air movement
• Wind velocity is measured by a anemometer and its direction is
measured by a wind vane.
• Wind velocity measured in m/s.
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 Humidity
The amount of moisture present in the air. The humidity of air can be
described as
• Absolute humidity (AH)
The amount of moisture actually present in unit mass or unit volume
of air in terms of g/kg or g/m³
• Saturation point humidity(SH)
The amount of moisture the air can hold to the maximum.
• Relative humidity (RH)
The ratio of actual amount of moisture to the amount of moisture the
air could hold at the given temperature expressed in %.
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 Vapour pressure
Another expression of atmospheric humidity is the vapour pressure
– partial pressure of water vapour in air. The atmospheric P is sum
of partial pressure of dry air Pa and the partial vapour pressure Pv
P= Pa + Pv
 Solar radiation – quantitative recordings measured by a
pyranometer, solarimeter,heliometer on an unobstructed horizontal
surface and recorded either as the continuously varying irradiance
(W/m2), or through an electronic integrator as irradiance over the
hour or day.
• Sunshine recorder will register te duration of sunshine exxpressed
in no: of hours /day average for everymonth
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 Precipitation – is the collective term used for rain,snow,hail,dew
and frost and all other forms of water deposited from the
atmosphere to the earth’s surface. Expressed in mm.
 Driving Rain
• Intense rains are associated with strong winds called driving
winds.
• Driving rain index characterizes a given location and expresses
the degree of exposure. It is the product of annual rainfall in (m)
and the annual average wind velocity m/s. m²/s
• Upto 3 m²/s it is sheltered, between 3-7 m²/s exposure moderate
and over 7 m²/s it is severe.
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 Sky condition
• Are usually described in terms of presence or absence of clouds
on average, two observations are made per day. When the
proportion of sky covered by clouds is expressed as in %. Sky
conditions is essential to calculate sky illuminance value if day
lighting in building is to be predicted.
 Special Characteristics
• Most regions experience conditions which are particularly unique
to that place, unfavourable conditions such as earthquakes,
hurricanes, dust storms, thunder storms, extreme weather
conditions etc.
• The frequency and duration of that situation should be noted as it
may endanger the safety of buildings and lives of the inhabitants.
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 Vegetation
• Vegetation can inturn influence the local or site climate
• It is an important element in the design of out door spaces,
providing sunshading and protection from glare
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Climate classifications for building designers in tropics
Tropical climates are those where heat is the dominant problem where for the
buildings serve to keep the occupants cool, rather than warm, where the mean
temperature is not less than 20 degree C.
Climatic Zones
• The interaction of solar radiation with the atmosphere and the gravitational forces,
together with the distribution of land and sea masses, produces an almost infinite
variety of climates.

• The climate classification is based on the two atmospheric factors which

dominantly influence human comfort:
Air temperature
Humidity
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Climate classifications for building designers in Tropics

• Warm- Humid equatorial climate –

subgroup: Warm-humid island or trade-wind climate

• Hot-dry desert, or semi desert climate –

subgroup: Hot dry maritime desert climate

• Composite or Monsoon climate-combination of the above two –

subgroup: Tropical upland climate
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Body’s Heat Gain
Heat is continuously produced by the body.
Most of the bio chemical processes involved in tissue building, energy conversion and muscular work are
exotherm.

Heat is also produced due to metabolism which is divided into -

• Basal metabolism – heat reproduction of vegetative, automatic process which are continuous
• Muscular metabolism – heat production of muscles while work.

Of the energy produced by the body only 20% is used the 80% heat is surplus. which needs to be dissipated to the
environment.
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Body’s Heat Loss
The body temperature must remain constant and balanced around 37 ºC.
To maintain this temperature at steady level all surplus heat must be dissipated to the environment.
Simultaneous heat gain from the environment also must be dissipated.
The Body can release heat to its environment by
• Convection – heat transmission from body to air in contact with skin or clothing
• Radiation – heat loss depends on the temperature of the body surface and the temperature of the opposing
surfaces.
• Evaporation – heat loss governed by rate of evaporation, which in turn depends on the humidity of air and on
amount of moisture available for evaporation- dryer the air faster the evaporation.
• Conduction –(to a lesser amount) depends on the temperature difference between the body surface and the
object the body contacts.
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Thermal Balance of Human body
Gain : Met= metabolism (basal and muscular)
Cnd= conduction (contact with warm bodies)
Cnv= convection(if the air is warmer than the skin)
Rad= radiation (from the sun, sky and hot bodies)

Loss : Cnd= conduction (contact with cold bodies)

Cnv= convection(if the air is cooler than the skin)
Rad= radiation (to night sky and cold surfaces)
Eva= Evaporation(of moisture and sweat)
Thermal Balance exist when
Met-Evp ±Cnd ± Cnv ± Rad= 0
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Factors that affect human comfort are
Air temperature
Humidity
Air movement
Radiation
Effects of climatic factors on human body heat loss
The factors influence in some way the heat exchange process between human
body and its environment.
• Normal skin temperature is between 31-34ºC
• Convective -Increase in air temperature decreases convective cooling
• Radiation - As the surface temperature increases radiation heat loss decreases
• Humidity - Air should be dry to permit a high evaporation rate
• Air movement- movement of air will accelerate evaporation
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Effects of climatic factors on human body heat loss
Calm, Warm air and moderate humidity
• Air temp.=18ºC, air velocity 0.25m/s, humidity is 40-60%
• a person engaged in sedentary work will dissipate surplus heat without
difficulty.
Hot air and considerable Radiation
• When both convective and radiant elements in the heat exchange are
positive thermal balance of the human body will be maintained by
evaporation if air is dry
Hot air,radiation and appreciable air movement
• When the air is hot and both convective and radiation elements are
positive and when air is humid, movement of air will accelerate
evaporation and help in heat loss
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Effects of climatic factors on human body heat loss

Saturated still air , above body temperature

• When there is no air movement and both convective and radiation

elements are positive and relative humidity is 100 % thermal balance
equation will be positive

Effects of prolonged exposure

• Prolonged exposure to discomfort conditions can produce adverse effects

• Considerable loss of efficiency in work coupled with physical strain
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Effects of climatic factors on human body heat loss

Subjective variables
• Clothing
• Acclimatisation
• Age and Sex
• Body shape
• Subcutaneous fat
• State of health
• Food and drink
• Skin colour
 Thermal Comfort

• Thermal comfort is that condition of mind that which expresses satisfaction

with the thermal environment.
• Thermal environment is those characteristics of the environment which
affects a person's heat loss.
• It describes a person’s state of mind in terms of whether they feel too hot
or too cold.
• In terms of bodily sensations, thermal comfort is a sensation of hot, warm,
slightly warmer, neutral, slightly cooler, cool and cold.
 Thermal Comfort

Factors Influencing Thermal Comfort:

• Air Temperature
• Relative Humidity
• Air Velocity
• Radiation
• Metabolic Rate
• Clothing Insulation
Effective temperature

Effective temperature (ET)is defined as a comfort index or scale that takes

into account the temperature of air, its moisture content, and movement.
Developed by Houghton and Yaglou
Effective temperature scale integrates the effects of three variables-
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Air movement

The Corrected Effective Temperature (CET) includes radiation effects also

 C Mahoney tables

• The Mahoney tables are a set of reference tables used in architecture,

used as a guide to climate-appropriate design. They are named after
architect Carl Mahoney, who worked on them together with John Martin
Evans, and Otto Königsberger

• The tables use readily available climate data and simple calculations to
give design guidelines.
 C Mahoney tables
It contains:
• Air temperature

• Humidity, precipitation & wind

• Comparison of comfort condition for different spaces

• Schematic design recommendations

• Design development recommendations

 C Mahoney tables
A rough outline of the table usage is:

• Air Temperatures. The max, min, and mean temperatures for each month

• Humidity, Precipitation, and Wind. The max, min, and mean figures for
each month and the conditions for each month classified into a humidity
group.

• Comparison of Comfort Conditions and Climate. The desired max/min

temperatures are entered, and compared to the climatic values
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• Indicators (of humid or arid conditions). Rules are provided for combining the
stress and humidity groups to check a box classifying the humidity and
aridity for each month. For each of six possible indicators, the number of
months where that indicator was checked are added up, giving a yearly total.

• Schematic Design Recommendations. The yearly totals in table 4

correspond to rows in this table, listing schematic design recommendations,
e.g. 'buildings oriented on east-west axis to reduce sun exposure', 'medium
sized openings, 20%-40% of wall area'.

• Design Development Recommendations. Again the yearly totals from table 4

are used to read off recommendations, e.g. 'roofs should be high-mass and
well insulated'.
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