Patho-Physiology

Topics:Pathophysiology of cell
Under Observation
by
K.N. SULAKHRIA ALI SIR

Student Name : Durjoy Mohajan

Group : 328
 Cellular adaptation
• cellular adaptation refers to changes made by a cell
in response to adverse or varying environmental
changes. The adaptation may be physiologic
(normal) or pathologic (abnormal). Four types of
morphological adaptations include
• atrophy,
• hypertrophy,
• hyperplasia,
• and metaplasia.
 Dysplasia

Dysplasia refers to abnormal changes in cellular

shape, size, and/or organization. Dysplasia is not
considered a true adaptation; rather, it is thought to
be related to hyperplasia and is sometimes called
"atypical hyperplasia". Tissues prone to dysplasia
include cervical and respiratory epithelium, where it
is strongly associated with the development of
cancer; it may also be involved in the development
of breast cancer. Although dysplasia is reversible, if
stress persists, then dysplasia progresses to
irreversible carcinoma.
 Metaplasia
• The most common example of metaplasia is 
Barrett's esophagus,
• when the non-keratinizing squamous epithelium of
the esophagus undergoes metaplasia to become
mucinous columnar cells,
• ultimately protecting the esophagus from acid
reflux originating in the stomach.
• If stress persists, metaplasia can progress to
dysplasia and eventually carcinoma; Barrett's
esophagus, for example, can eventually progress to
adenocarcinoma.
 Hyperplasia
•  It is common in epithelial cells of the epidermis and 
intestine, liver hepatocytes, bone marrow cells, and 
fibroblasts.
• It occurs to a lesser extent in bone, cartilage, and 
smooth muscle cells.
• Hormonal hyperplasia occurs mainly in organs that
depend on estrogen. For example, the estrogen-
dependent uterine cells undergo hyperplasia and
hypertrophy following pregnancy.
• Pathologic hyperplasia is an abnormal increase in cell
division. A common pathologic hyperplasia in women
occurs in the endometrium and is called endometriosis.
 Hypertrophy
•  in size by depositing more lipid within cytoplasmic 
vesciles.
• Thus in human adults, increases in body fat tissue
occurs mostly by increases in the size of adipocytes,
not by increases in the number of adipocytes.
•  Hypertrophy may be caused by mechanical signals
(e.g., stretch) or trophic signals (e.g., growth factors).
An example of physiologic hypertrophy is in skeletal
muscle with sustained weight bearing exercise.
• An example of pathologic hypertrophy is in cardiac
muscle as a result of hypertension.
 Atrophy
• Atrophy is a decrease in cell size.
• If enough cells in an organ undergo atrophy the
entire organ will decrease in size.
• Thymus atrophy during early human development
 (childhood) is an example of physiologic atrophy.
•  Skeletal muscle atrophy is a common pathologic
adaptation to skeletal muscle disuse (commonly
called "disuse atrophy").
• Tissue and organs especially susceptible to
atrophy include skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, 
secondary sex organs, and the brain.
 Cell damage
• this can be due to physical, chemical, infectious,
biological, nutritional or immunological factors. Cell
damage can be reversible or irreversible. Depending
on the extent of injury, the cellular response may be
adaptive and where possible, homeostasis is
restored.Cell death occurs when the severity of the
injury exceeds the cell's ability to repair itself. Cell
death is relative to both the length of exposure to a
harmful stimulus and the severity of the damage
caused.Cell death may occur by necrosis or
apoptosis.
 Mechanisms of cell injury
• The most common forms of cell injury are caused by
low oxygen supply to the cell as a result of ischemia
and hypoxia.
• The other common mechanisms of cell injury are
injury induced by free radicals, and certain forms of
chemical injury.
• Hypoxic injury – can be reversible and irreversible.
• Reversible injury – if oxygen deprivation is of short
duration the effects of hypoxia are reversible on rapid
restoration of circulation.
 Compensation of water-ion imbalance is
provided with
• Activation of ion “pumps” energy supply
• Increase of ion-transporting enzymes activity
• Activation of cell’s buffer system.
Normal-
1 change in cell size of number
2 change in cell type
 Repair of cell genome is provided with the following
mwchanisms
• Revealing and elimination
• Replacement of damaged dna
• Elimination of dna ruptures
• Normalization of dna transcription and translation
Atropy
Hypertrophy
Hyperplasia
Metaplasia
DYsplasia
 Causes
• Physical agents such as heat or radiation can damage a
cell by literally cooking or coagulating their contents.
• Impaired nutrient supply, such as lack of oxygen or 
glucose, or impaired production of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) may deprive the cell of essential
materials needed to survive.
• Regeneration
• Regeneration of parenchyma cells, or the functional
cells, of an organism. The body can make more cells to
replace the damaged cells keeping the organ or tissue
intact and fully functional.
Thank you