Chapter 7:

Qualitative Research Tools

What is Qualitative Business Research ?

Research that address business objectives through

techniques that allow the researcher to provide
elaborate interpretations of phenomena without
depending on numerical measurement; its focus is on
discovering true inner meanings and new insights.
Uses of Qualitative Research

Generally, the less specific the research objectives, the

more likely that qualitative research tools will be
appropriate.

When the emphasis is on a deeper understanding of

innovations or developing novel concepts, qualitative
research is very appropriate.

How a phenomenon occurs in a natural setting

Quantitative Research
Business research that addresses research
objectives through empirical assessment that
involve numerical measurement and analysis.
 Qualitative versus Quantitative
Research
• Purpose
– Exploratory versus descriptive and conclusive
• Small versus large samples
• Broad range of questioning versus
structured questions
• Subjective interpretation versus statistical
analysis
 Exploratory research
• Secondary data
• Experience survey
• Pilot studies
 Exploratory Research

• Initial research conducted to clarify and

define the nature of a problem
• Does not provide conclusive evidence
• Subsequent research expected
What is Exploratory Research?

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
DATA DATA
Why Conduct Exploratory
Research?
Diagnose a situation

Screening of alternatives

Discover new ideas

Orientation to Qualitative Research

Phenomenology -Originating in philosophy and

psychology

Ethnography - Originating in Anthropology

Grounded Theory - Originating in sociology

Case Studies - Originating in psychology and in business

 Case Study Method

• Case studies refer to the documented history of a

particular person, group, organization or event.

• Intensely investigates one or a few situations

similar to the problem
• Investigate in depth
• Careful study
• May require cooperation
 Common Techniques Used in
Qualitative Research
• Focus group
• Depth Interviews
• Conversation
• Semi-structured Interview
• Word association / Sentence completion
• Observation
• Projective Techniques
• Thematic Apperception Test (T.A.T)
Focus Group Interviews

• Unstructured
• Free flowing
• Group interview
• Start with broad
topic and focus in
on specific issues
• Led by a trained moderator who
follows a flexible format
encouraging dialog among
respondents.
 Group Composition

• 6 to 10 people
• Relatively
homogeneous
• Similar lifestyles
and experiences
 Outline for a Focus Group
• Establish a rapport
• Begin with broad topic
• Focus in on specific topic
• Generate discussion and interaction
 The Moderator

• Develops rapport -
helps people relax
• Interacts
• Listens to what
people have to say
• Everyone gets a
chance to speak
 The Moderator
• Maintains loose control and focuses
discussion
• Stimulates spontaneous responses
 Advantages of Online
Focus Groups
• Fast
• Inexpensive
• Bring together many participants from
wide-spread geographical areas
• Respondent anonymity
• Transcript automatically recorded
 Disadvantages of Online
Focus Groups
• Less group interaction
• Absence of tactile stimulation
• Absence of facial expression and body
language
• Moderator’s job is difficult
“A man is least himself when he talks
in his own person; when given a mask
he will tell the truth.”
--Oscar Wilde
 Depth interviews

• A one-one-one interview between a

professional researcher and a respondent
conducted about some relevant business or
social topic.
 Conversations

• An informal data gathering approach in

which the researcher engages a respondent
in a discussion of the relevant subject
matter.
Semi-structured Interview
Social Networking
Word Association/ Free-association

• Subject is presented with a list of words

• Asked to respond with first word that comes
to mind
• Or, respondents view an ambiguous figure
and are asked to say the first thing that
comes to their mind.
 Sentence Completion
People who drink beer are ______________________

A man who drinks light beer is ___________________

Imported beer is most liked by ___________________

A woman will drink beer when____________________

 Projective Techniques

• Word association tests

• Sentence completion method
• Third-person technique
• Role playing
• T.A.T.
• Picture frustration version of T.A.T.
 Observation

• Can be a very important qualitative tool

• It is keenly advantageous for gaining

insight into things that respondents can not
or will not verbalize.
 Chapter 9
Survey Research: An Overview
 Surveys

Surveys ask respondents for information

using verbal or written questioning
 Respondents
Respondents are a
representative
sample of people
 Gathering Information via
Surveys
• Quick
• Inexpensive
• Efficient
• Accurate
• Flexible
 Problems

• Poor Design
• Improper Execution
Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error
Random sampling
error

Total
error

Systematic
error (bias)
 Random Sampling Error

• A statistical fluctuation that occurs because

of change variation in the elements selected
for the sample
 Systematic Error

• Systematic error results from some

imperfect aspect of the research design or
from a mistake in the execution of the
research
Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Administrative
error

Systematic
error (bias)

Respondent
error
 Sample Bias

• Sample bias - when the results of a sample

show a persistent tendency to deviate in one
direction from the true value of the
population parameter
 Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Nonresponse
error

Respondent
error

Response
bias
 Respondent Error

• A classification of sample bias resulting

from some respondent action or inaction
• Nonresponse bias
• Response bias
 Nonresponse Error

• Nonrespondents - people who refuse to

cooperate
• Not-at-homes
• Self-selection bias
• Over-represents extreme positions
• Under-represents indifference
 Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Deliberate
falsification
Response
bias

Unconscious
misrepresentation
 Response Bias

• A bias that occurs when respondents

tend to answer questions with a certain
slant that consciously or unconsciously
misrepresents the truth
Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Acquiescence bias

Extremity bias

Interviewer bias

Auspices bias

Social desirability bias

 Acquiescence Bias

• A category of response bias that results

because some individuals tend to agree with
all questions or to concur with a particular
position.
 Extremity Bias

• A category of response bias that results

because response styles vary from person to
person; some individuals tend to use
extremes when responding to questions.
 Interviewer Bias

• A response bias that occurs because the

presence of the interviewer influences
answers.
 Auspices Bias
• Bias in the responses of subjects caused by
the respondents being influenced by the
organization conducting the study.
 Social Desirability Bias

• Bias in responses caused by respondents’

desire, either conscious or unconscious, to
gain prestige or appear in a different social
role.
Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Administrative
error

Systematic
error (bias)

Respondent
error
 Administrative Error

• Improper administration of the research task

• Blunders
• Confusion
• Neglect
• Omission
Tree Diagram of Total Survey Error

Data processing error

Sample selection error

Interviewer error

Interviewer cheating
 Administrative Error
• Interviewer cheating - filling in fake
answers or falsifying interviewers
• Data processing error - incorrect data entry,
computer programming, or other procedural
errors during the analysis stage.
• Sample selection error -improper sample
design or sampling procedure execution.
• Interviewer error - field mistakes
 C L A S S IF Y IN G
SURVEY
RESEARCH
M ETHO DS

M ETH O D STRU C TU R ED TEM PO RAL

OF A N D D IS Q U IS E D C L A S S IF IC A T IO N S
C O M M U N IC A T IO N Q U E S T IO N S
 Classifying Surveys
by Degree of Structure and Degree of Disguise

Structured Unstructured

Example: Example:

Typical descriptive survey Survey with open-ended

Undisguised with straight-forward, structured
questions
questions to discover “new”
answers or focus group interview

Example: Example:

Disguised Survey interview to measure Projection techniques used

brand A’s image versus mostly for exploratory research
competitive brands’ images or
brand recall (unaided recall)
 Time Period for Surveys

• Cross-sectional
• Longitudinal
 Cross-Sectional Study
• A study in which various segments of a
population are sampled
• Data are collected at a single moment in
time.
 Longitudinal Study
• A survey of respondents at different times,
thus allowing analysis of changes over time.

• Tracking study – use successive samples,

compare trends and identify changes in
variables such as consumer satisfaction
 Consumer Panel
• A longitudinal survey of the same sample of
individuals or households to record (in a
diary) their attitudes, behavior, or
purchasing habits over time.
 Total Quality Management and
Customer Satisfaction Surveys
• Total quality management - A business
philosophy that emphasizes market-driven
quality as a top organizational priority.
 Stages in Tracking Quality
Improvement

Initial Continuous
Commitment Bench- quality
and marking Quality
improve- Improvement
Exploration ment
 Commitment and Exploration
Stage
• Management makes a commitment to total
quality assurance
• Business researchers explore external
customers’ needs and problems.
• Business researchers explore internal
customers’ needs, beliefs, and motivations.
 Benchmarking Stage
• Research establishes quantitative measures
as benchmarks or points of comparison
• Overall satisfaction and quality ratings of
specific attributes
• Employees actual performance and
perceptions
Initial Quality Improvement Stage

• Tracking wave 1 measures trends

• Establishes a quality improvement process
within the organization.
• Translate quality issues into the internal
vocabulary of the organization.
• Establish performance standards and
expectations for improvement.
Continuous Quality Improvement
• Consists of many consecutive waves with
the same purpose—to improve over the
previous period.
• Quality improvement management
continues.
 Determinants of the Quality of
Goods
• Performance
• Features
• Conformance with specifications
• Reliability
• Durability
• Serviceability
• Aesthetic design
 Determinants of Service Quality

• Access
• Communication
• Competence
• Courtesy
• Reliability
• Credibility