Ri 3

Radiography
Part 4.
Course Reference WIS 20
23 Sep 02 M.S.Rogers
Determination of Exposure
 Wavelength - Gamma fixed, X-ray
variable
 Intensity - Gamma curries fixed, X-ray mA
variable
 Film density to be achieved
 Film speed
 Source to film distance
 Material type
 Material thickness
Determination of Gamma
Exposures
Gamma exposures are calculated by the
use of a gamma calculators/slide rule
Gamma calculators take into consideration
• Film density to be achieved
• Source type
• Activity of the source
• Film speed
• Source to film distance
• Material type
• Material thickness
Determination of X-ray
Exposures
X-ray exposures are less straight forward
because the wavelength and intensity are
variable
X-ray exposures are determined by the following

• By using exposure charts
• By reference to previous exposure records
• By trial and error test shots
• By a combination of the above
Exposures Charts
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 280 300
6.5 Chart based on
5.5 • Philips 300kV
• Screen = pb
Milli Amps
4.5
• Dev = to spec
3.5
• Density = 2.0
2.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
23 Sep 02
Material thickness M.S.Rogers
Density Equivalent Factors
st Density Required
1 Density
Achieved 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.0
0.50 5.00 7.50 10.00 12.00

0.75 2.60 3.90 4.90 6.00
1.00 1.75 2.50 3.33 4.00
1.50 1.00 1.40 1.90 2.40
2.00 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.60
2.50 0.55 0.80 1.00 1.20
2.75 0.50 0.70 0.95 1.10
3.00 0.45 0.60 0.80 1.00
3.50 0.38 0.55 0.70 0.86
3.75 0.36 0.53 0.65 0.80
4.00 0.35 0.50 0.60 0.75
Multiply 1 st exposure by the above factors to achieve the density required.
Exposures Charts
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 280 300
6.5 Chart based on
• Screen = pb
Milli Amps
4.5
• Dev = to spec
3.5 • Density = 2.0
2.5 • Material = C/S
1.5
1.0
0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
23 Sep 02
Exposure Calculations
Radiographic Equivalence Chart
50kv 100kV 150kV 220kV 400kV
Mg 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.08
Al 1 1 0.12 0.08
Ti 0.45 0.35
Cu 18 1.6 1.4 1.4
Steel 12 1 1 1
Zi 1.4 1.3 1.3
Exposures Charts
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 280 300
6.5 Chart based on
• Screen = pb
Milli Amps
4.5
• Dev = to spec
3.5 • Density = 2.0
• Film type = D7
1.5
1.0
0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
23 Sep 02
Relative Film Exposures
Film Speed Chart
D7 D5 D4
Agfa
CX AX MX
Kodak
150 100 80
Fuji
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
Exposure Calculation
Change of Film From CX to MX
Original Exposure 4 mins
Film factor for CX 2.5
Film factor for MX 10
New Exposure = New film type X original exposure

original film
New Exposure = 10 x 4 = 16mins

2.5
Exposures Charts
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 280 300
6.5 Chart based on
• Screen = pb
Milli Amps
4.5
• Dev = to spec
3.5 • Density = 2.0
• Film type = D7
1.5
• FFD = 900
1.0
0.5
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
23 Sep 02
Exposures Calculations
Exposure = intensity x time

example 3 mA at 2 minutes = 6 mA minutes
1 mA at 6 minutes = 6 mA minutes
Exposure formula
old exposure = new distance2
new exposure new distance2
E1 = D12
E2 D22
Radiographic Techniques
Radiographic Techniques
 Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
- film inside, source outside
 Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

- film outside, source inside (internal exposure)
 Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

- film outside, source outside (external exposure)
 Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

- film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
Single wall single image SWSI
Film
Film
IQI’s should be placed source side
Single wall single image SWSI
panoramic
Film
• IQI’s are placed on the film side

• Source inside film outside (single exposure)
Double wall single image DWSI
Film
• IQI’s are placed on the film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters
over 100mm
Double wall single image DWSI
Identification
• Unique identification
EN W10
• IQI placing
• Pitch marks A B
indicating readable ID MR11
film length
Radiograph
Double wall double image DWDI
elliptical exposure
Film
• IQI’s are placed on the source or film side
• A minimum of two exposures
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters
less than 100mm
Identification 4 3
• Unique identification EN W10
• IQI placing
• Pitch marks 1 2
indicating readable ID MR12
film length
Shot A Radiograph
perpendicular exposure
Film
• IQI’s are placed on the source or film side
• A minimum of three exposures
• Source side weld is superimposed on film side weld
• This technique is intended for small pipe diameters
Sandwich Technique
Density Density Density Density

3.0 1.2 3.0 1.2
Density requirement 2.0 to 3.0

Density unacceptable
Sandwich Technique
FILM A LEAD FILM A

FILM B SCREENS FILM B
Density Density Density Density

3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0
FILM A: Fine Grain Medium Speed Density 2.0 to 3.0 acceptable

FILM B: Very Fine Grain-Slow Speed
Parallax or tube shift Technique
Tube Shift
Source Source
Defect
Lead Marker
t = 50
d?
Lead Marker Images d=txa

Defect Images
b = 30
b
d = 50 x 15
a = 15 30
d = 25mm
Radiographic Films
Radiographic Film
Base
Radiographic Film
Subbing
Base
Subbing
Radiographic Film
Supercoat
Emulsion AgBr
Subbing
Base
Subbing
Emulsion AgBr
Supercoat
Film Types
Grain Size Speed Quality Film factor
Coarse Fast Poor 10
Medium Medium Medium 35
Fine Slow Good 90
Ultra Fine V.Slow V.Good 200
Image formation
When radiation passes through an object it is differentially
absorbed depending upon the materials thickness and
any differing densities
The portions of radiographic film that receive sufficient
amounts of radiation undergo minute changes to produce
the latent image (hidden image)
1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted

into metallic silver to produce the latent image
2. The affected crystals are the amplified by the
developer, the developer completely converts
the affected crystals into metallic silver
3. The radiograph attains its final appearance by
fixation
Film Processing
Film processing is carried out using the following
 Developer tank - alkali

 Stop bath or rinse tank - slightly acidic
 Fixer tank - acidic
 Final wash tank - running water
 Wetting agent - detergent
 Drying - drying cabinet or drying room
Film Processing
Development
 Supplied as a liquid concentrated alkali mixed to
1 part developer to 4 parts water
 Developer temperatures for manual processing
20oC
 Development times are 4 to 5 minutes
 During the development process agitation should
take place to avoid bromide streaking
 Replenishment may be added to maintain
development times and the activity of the
developer
Film Processing
Fixer
 Supplied as a liquid concentrated acid mixed to 1
part fixer to 3 parts water
 Fixing temperatures for manual processing 20oC
 Fixing times are twice the clearing time, clearing
time about 3 minutes, fixing time about 6 minutes
 During the fixing process agitation should take
place to avoid light spots on the radiograph
 When fixing times exceed 10 minutes the fixer
should be replaced, replenishment is not normally
added
Film Processing
Washing / Drying
 After washing in running water the films may be
placed in a wetting agent to reduce surface tension
this results in even drying, preventing black streaky
marks on the radiograph
 Before drying excess water should be removed with
the use of a squeegee

 Drying should take place in a dust free environment
 Typical drying times in a drying cabinet 15 minutes
 Typical drying times in a drying room 45 minutes

 Care should be taken not to allow drops of water to
appear on the drying films, this may cause black

marks to appear on the radiograph
Characteristic curve
Sensitometric curve
H & D Hunter & Driffield curve
The point of solarisation
3.5
Density 3.0
(Log) 2.5
2.0
1.0
Maximum 0.5
inherent film
density 0.3
Log Relative Exposure
Characteristic Curves
Information which can be obtained from a
films characteristic curve
• The position of the curve on the exposure axis
gives information about the films speed
Density
A B C D E
Film A is faster than

Film B
Film B faster then C

• The gradient of the curve gives information on the
films contrast
Density obtained in
Density a photographic
(Log) emulsion does not
vary linearly with
applied exposure
Steeper gradient
Highest contrast

films contrast
• The position of the straight line portion of the curve
against the density axis will show the density range
range within which the film is at its optimal
Shoulder
Density
(Log)
Straight line
section
Toe

films contrast
• The position of the straight line portion of the curve
against the density axis will show the density range
range within which the film is at its optimal
• A new exposure can be determined for a change of
film type

Ri 3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ri 3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Radiography

X-ray exposures are determined by the following

0.50 5.00 7.50 10.00 12.00

Multiply 1 st exposure by the above factors to achieve the density required.

New Exposure = New film type X original exposure

New Exposure = 10 x 4 = 16mins

Exposure = intensity x time

 Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

 Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

 Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

IQI’s should be placed source side

• IQI’s are placed on the film side

Density Density Density Density

Density requirement 2.0 to 3.0

FILM A LEAD FILM A

Density Density Density Density

FILM A: Fine Grain Medium Speed Density 2.0 to 3.0 acceptable

Lead Marker Images d=txa

1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted

 Developer tank - alkali

the use of a squeegee

 Typical drying times in a drying cabinet 15 minutes

 Typical drying times in a drying room 45 minutes

appear on the drying films, this may cause black

Film A is faster than

Log Relative Exposure

Log Relative Exposure

Log Relative Exposure

You might also like