Definition 16: Let H be a subgroup of a

group G, and let aG. We define the left

coset of H in G containing g,written gH, by
gH ={g*h| h H}. Similarity we define the
right coset of H in G containing g,written
Hg, by Hg ={h*g| h H}.

G Ha  aH
aG aG
[E;+]
Example:S3={e,1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
H1={e, 1}; H2={e, 2}; H3={e, 3};
H4={e, 4, 5} 。
H1
Lemma 2 ： Let H be a subgroup of the
group G. Then |gH|=|H| and |Hg|=|H| for
gG.
Proof: :HHg, (h)=hg
 6.4.3 Lagrange's Theorem
 Theorem 6.19: Let H be a subgroup of
the group G. Then {gH|gG} and {Hg|
gG} have the same cardinal number
 Proof ： Let S={Hg|gG} and T={gH|
gG}
 : S→T, (Ha)=a-1H 。
(1)  is an everywhere function.
for Ha=Hb, a-1H?=b-1H
[a][b] iff [a]∩[b]=
(2)  is one-to-one 。
For Ha,Hb,suppose that HaHb ， and
(Ha)=(Hb)
(3)Onto
Definition 17 ： Let H is a subgroup of the
group G. The number of all right
cosets(left cofets) of H is called index of H
in G.
[E;+] is a subgroup of [Z;+].
E’s index? ？
Theorem 6.20: Let G be a finite group and
let H be a subgroup of G. Then |G| is a
multiple of |H|.
Example: Let G be a finite group and let
the order of a in G be n. Then n| |G|.
Example: Let G be a finite group and |G|
=p. If p is prime, then G is a cyclic group.
 a b  a b
G  {  |  0, a , b, c, d  R}
c d  c d

a b a b
H  {  |  0, a, b, c, d  Q}
c d  c d
 2 0  2a 2b 
    | a, b, c, d  Q}
 0 1 H  { c d 
  

 2 0   2a b 
H   {
 
 | a, b, c, d  Q}

 0 1   2c d 
 6.4.4 Normal subgroups

Definition 18 ： A subgroup H of a group is

a normal subgroup if gH=Hg for gG.
Example: Any subgroups of Abelian group
are normal subgroups
S3={e,1, 2, 3, 4, 5} :
 H1={e, 1}; H2={e, 2}; H3={e, 3}; H4={e,
4, 5} are subgroups of S3.
H4 is a normal subgroup
(1) If H is a normal subgroup of G, then
Hg=gH for gG
(2)H is a subgroup of G.
(3)Hg=gH, it does not imply hg=gh.
(4) If Hg=gH, then there exists h'H such
that hg=gh' for hH
Theorem 6.21: Let H be a subgroup of G. H is
a normal subgroup of G iff g-1hgH for gG
and hH.
Example:Let G ={ (x; y)| x,yR with x 0} ,
and consider the binary operation ●
introduced by (x, y) ● (z,w) = (xz, xw + y) for
(x, y), (z, w) G.
Let H ={(1, y)| yR}. Is H a normal subgroup
of G? Why?
1. H is a subgroup of G
2. normal?
Let H be a normal subgroup of G, and let
G/H={Hg|gG}
For Hg1 and Hg2G/H,
Let Hg1Hg2=H(g1*g2)
Lemma 3: Let H be a normal subgroup of
G. Then [G/H; ] is a algebraic system.
Proof:  is a binary operation on G/H.
For Hg1=Hg3 and Hg2=Hg4G/H,
Hg1Hg2=H(g1*g2), Hg3Hg4=H(g3*g4),
Hg1Hg2?=Hg3Hg4?
H(g1*g2)=?H(g3*g4)
g3*g4?H(g1*g2), i.e. (g3g4)(g1*g2)-1?H.
Theorem 6.22: Let [H;] be a normal
subgroup of the group [G;]. Then [G/H;]
is a group.
Proof: associative
Identity element: Let e be identity element
of G.
He=HG/H is identity element of G/H
Inverse element: For HaG/H, Ha-
G/H is inverse element of Ha,
1

where a-1G is inverse element of a.

Definition19: Let [H;*] be a normal
subgroup of the group [G;*]. [G/H;] is
called quotient group, where the
operation  is defined on G/H by
Hg1Hg2= H(g1*g2).
If G is a finite group, then G/H is also a
finite group, and |G/H|=|G|/|H|
Next: quotient group
The fundamental theorem of
homomorphism for groups
Exercise: P362 21, 22,23,
26,28,33,34