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Machining of metals
Subjects of interest
• Introduction/objectives
• Type of machining operations
• Mechanics of machining
• Three dimensional machining
• Temperature in metal cutting
• Cutting fluids
• Tool materials and tool life
• Grinding processes
• Non traditional machining processes
• Economics of machining
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar
2007
Objectives
Turning of metal
•Conventional methods require
mainly mechanical energy.
•More advanced metal-removal
processes involve chemical,
electrical or thermal energy.
A chip of material is
removed from the surface
of the workpiece.
Principal parameters:
• the cutting speed, v
• the depth of cut, w or d
• the feed, f.
Before
deformation
Shear
Primary shear
angle
Secondary shear
Secondary shear
Well defined
shear plane
Kinematic relationship
vc From continuity of mass, vt = vct c
workpiece t
t vc
v
r …Eq. 5
v
vs tc
D
v
From kinematic relationship, the
vs vc vector sum of the cutting velocity and
O tc
the chip velocity = the shear velocity
tool
vector.
cos
s cos …Eq. 6
Velocity relationships in
orthogonal machining
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar
2007
Calculation of the cutting ratio from chip length
t
Since volume is constant during
plastic deformation, and chip
v width b is essentially constant,
Lc
D
vs vc
Lwtb L c t c b
O tc
…Eq. 7
t Lc r
tool
workpiece tc Lw
• Therefore we could also obtain r from the ratio of the chip length Lc , to
the length of the workpiece from which it came, L w
d
s …Eq. 9
dt ( ys )
Where (ys)max is the estimate
maxof the maximum value of the
Ft Fh sin Fv cos
Fn
PR
F h
h cos
FtF c o
Fn Fh cos Fv sin s
v
F
Fv F s
h in
Fv si n
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar
2007
•If the components of the cutting force are
known, then the coefficient of friction in
the tool face is given by
Ft
tan F F tan …Eq. 10
v h
Fn Fh Fv tan
F v s i n F ns
Fs Fh cos Fv sin
Fv
…Eq. 11
F v c os
Fh
Fs
…Eq. 12 Fh sin Fv cos
P’ R
Fns F h cos
F h s in
As tool
bt workpiece
bt
…Eq. 15
4
2
2
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar
2007
However, in practice, the shear plane angle is varied
depending on the nature of each material (composition & heat
treatment) to be machined.
coso sin o
k
ko cos 45 sin 45 …Eq. 16
2 2
1
1
sin o sin 2o
ko
0.552 o
2 6
1
6 k
1 k o
0.1045 6o For annealed copper:
2o sin 1.104
1 70
1
0.1045 6 o
k 2o sin 1.104 20
Note that k o/k 1 is a fraction, then 7
2o sin (0.2688) 6 21.6
1 o o
we can use tensile
values o 10.8o Experimental range is 11 to 13.5o
directly in the above
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar
equations. 2007
Specific cutting energy
F h v F h v Fh Z w …Eq. 17
U
btv bt
Where b is the width of the
Force values of specific cutting energy for
chip t is the undeformed chip various materials and machining
thickness operations
32 6o
o
440 1100 tan
tan 0.527
6o
27.81100
o 440 tan
6o
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar
2007
If a toolpost dynamometer gives cutting and thrust forces of Fh = 1100 N
and Fv = 440 N, determine the percentage of the total energy that goes
into overcoming friction at the tool-chip interface and the percentage
that is required for cutting along the shear plane. (Density = 7830 kg.m-
3.)
The total specific energy is The frictional specific energy at the tool-
chip interface Uf and along the shear plane
U U f Us Us is
From Eq. 17 F
U h U f Ft vc Ft r and, U s F s v s
bt
btv btv
F v F ns Ft vc Ft r
Thus Friction
bt energy U f
Fh
Fhv Fh
Fs
P’ R
Vc chip Total energy
F P sinU , and P P ' F 2 F 2
t R R R v
h
PR (440)2 (1100)2 1185N
Fn Rake
PR fa ce
Ft 1185sin 27.8o
Ft
553N 553(0.586)
% friction energy 100 29.5%
1100
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar
2007
From Eq.17, From Eq.11,
Fs Fh cos Fv sin
Shearing engergy Fsvs
Fs 1100 cos 32o 440 sin
Total energy 32 o
F 700N
s
Fhv
v 2.5 cos 1
vs 6o 2.77m.s
cos cos(32 6)
cos
700 2.77
%shearing energy 1100 100 70.5%
2.5
U
Fhv
1100 2.5
N.m 2
550MJm 3
Fh kd a f b …Eq. 18
Effect of cutting speed on cutting force.
Drill-workpiece
interface
Work
Tool materials:
• Carbon and low alloy steels
• High speed steels (HSS)
• Cemented carbide
• Ceramic or oxide tools
• Diamond like structure
1) Adhesive wear : the tool and the chip weld together at local
asperities, and wear occurs by the fracture of the welded
junctions.
2) Abrasive wear : occurs as a result of hard particles on
the underside of the chip abrading the tool face by
mechanical action as the chip passes over the rake face.
3) Wear from solid-state diffusion from the tool materials to
the workpiece at high temperature and intimate contact at the
interface between the chip and the rake face.
Rapid wear
Initial breakdown
Length of wear land
The predominant wear process
of cutting edge
depends on cutting speed.
• Flank wear dominates at low
speed.
•Crater wear predominates at higher
Cutting time
speeds Typical wear curve for cutting
tool
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan- 2007
Mar
Types of wear observed in single point cutting tools
Rapid wear
Initial breakdown
Length of wear land
However, tool life can be conservatively
of cutting edge
estimated by using wear curves and
the replacement of the tool should be
made before they have used up their
economical life.
Cutting time
Typical wear curve for cutting
Suranaree University of Technology Jan-Mar
Tapany Udomphol tool
2007
Machinability
Definition: The ability of a material to be machined.
rvw d …Eq. 25
Fg rt
Cv g
D
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar
2007
Surface temperature
Large portion of energy in grinding process goes to raising
the temperature. The surface temperature Tw, strongly
dependent on the energy per unit surface area, is given by
Tw Fg v g …Eq. 25
v w b Ud
Surface cleaning
USM
•The tool is excited around 20,000 Hz products
with a magnetostrictive transducer
while a slurry of fine abrasive
particles is introduced between the
tool and the workpiece.
•Each cycle of vibration removes
minute pieces of pieces of the
workpiece by fracture or erosion.
•Used mostly for machining brittle
hard materials such as
semiconductors, ceramics, or glass.
tool cost
Tool wear Machining cost
Tool changing
Cm t m (Lm Om ) …Eq. 27
C c tg ac Lg Og
t …Eq. 28
t
Where t g = the time required to grind and change a cutting edge
= the actual cutting time per piece
t ac
= the tool life for a cutting edge
t
= the labour rate for a toolroom operator
Lg
= the overhead rate for the tool room operation.
Og
The Taylor equation for tool life can be written
1
C u = Cm + C n + C c + C t
Production
Cost per piece
rate,
pieces
per hour
Machining cost Cm
Tool cost Tool changing
Ct
Cc
Cn- idle cost
Cutting speed
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar
2007
References