Thomas Hardy and W

.B Yeats
English Poetry II( 영국 시 ) – Introduction to the 20th Century
This period is often called The Late Victorian Age.
It saw a decay in traditional Victorian values. The
British Empire was being challenged and attacked
by its colonies’ desire to rule themselves.

This lead to conflicts such as the Boer Wars and Ir

eland’s independence from Britain. America and G
ermany were also becoming big military powers,
which challenged Britain’s authority in the world.

The Victorian Age: 1870-1901

 So England saw a cultural and artistic turn agains
t the values of Queen Victoria's reign (1837-190
1).

The earlier values of respectability and good rep

utation were promoted during the prosperous 18
60s. However, it became harder to raise one’s so
cial status due to the economy in the 1870-80s a
nd this lead to the questioning of these values.

The Victorian Age: 1870-1901

So Victorian values were being questioned and
many writers and poets also challenged these va
lues in their art. Specifically, attitudes towards
women and the lower-classes.

For example, the lower-classes were demanding

the right to vote and women were asserting thei
r right to vote and live more satisfying lives.

The Victorian Age: 1870-1901

In 1901, Queen Victoria died and was succeeded by
Edward VII which began the Edwardian Era. This era
was defined by great displays of wealth from the up
per-classes unlike the more serious Victorian Era.

Motion pictures, automobiles, and aeroplanes were c

oming into use at this time. Edward died in 1910, to
be succeeded by George V, who reigned 1910–36.

The Early 20th Century

The era was prosperous but political crises were es
calating out of control. In 1910–1914 there was seri
ous social and political instability arising from the Ir
ish crisis, the colonies, labor unrest, and the wome
n's suffrage movements.

No solutions were reached when the unexpected ou

tbreak of the First World War began in 1914.

The Early 20th Century

Thomas Hardy (2 June 184
0 – 11 January 1928) was bo
rn near Dorchester, Englan
d.

Hardy’s family were from a

working-class background b
ut his mother was well-edu
cated for a woman.

Thomas Hardy Biography

Hardy showed much intellec
tual promise and was educa
ted up to the age of 16.

However, his parents could

not afford to sent him to uni
versity. He became an archi
tect’s apprentice.

Thomas Hardy Biography

In 1862, Hardy moved to Lo
ndon to continue his career
in architecture.

1867, Hardy left London be

cause he wanted to pursue
a writing career and felt so
cially inferior in London.

Thomas Hardy Biography

In 1870 he met his wife Emm
a who he married 4 years lat
er.

In 1871, Hardy published his

first novel Desperate Remedi
es. In 1874, Far from the Ma
dding Crowd was published a
nd Hardy wrote full-time du
e to its success.

Thomas Hardy Biography

Hardy continued to write s
ome of the most popular b
ooks of the 19th century.

This includes Tess of the

D’Urbevilles (1891) and Ju
de the Obscure (1895). Ha
rdy also wrote many collec
tions of poetry.

Thomas Hardy Biography

In 1912, Hardy’s wife Emma d
ied and he was greatly effect
ed, even though they were es
tranged. He remarried in 191
4.

In 1928, Hardy died from hear

t failure. His ashes were burie
d in Poet’s Corner of Westmin
ster Abbey.

Thomas Hardy Biography

‘The Ruined Maid’ is a satirical poem by Thomas Har
dy. It was written in 1896 but published in 1901. The
poem is a dialogue between 2 farm girls in late Victor
ian England. One has left the farm for city life and on
e has stayed in the country.

A girl (nameless and living on a farm) speaks to anoth

er girl called Melia. In this poem, Hardy provides soci
al commentary on the subject of prostitution and its
effects.

The Ruined Maid - Introduction

The poem is set in a small, rural town which Melia us
ed to live in and has returned to visit. The two girls
meet on the street and, since they haven’t seen eac
h other for some time, they chat.

It’s not clear if they were close friends however, the

y were friendly and their conversation is intimate, b
ut also casual.

The Ruined Maid - Introduction

In the 1st stanza the first speaker addresses Melia by in
quiring about her ‘fair garments’ and ‘such prosperi-t
y.’ This refers to her nice clothes and apparent wealth.
Melia replies, ‘O didn’t you know I’d been ruined?’ Rui
ned means she is no longer respectable because she is
sexually experienced and/or a prostitute.

Melia behaves slightly arrogantly and superior towards

the other girl, who has not been to the city. The other
girl is a little naïve about Melia and in awe of her.

The Ruined Maid - Summary

In the 2nd stanza, her appearance continues to be emph
asized. The first girl says that Melia used to wear “tatt
ers, without shoes or socks” and now she is wearing “g
ay bracelets and bright feathers three.” In truth, the b
racelets and feathers are signs of Melia’s prostitution,
not of wealth or high culture.

The 3rd stanza is about her language: The girl believes

Melia talks in a way that’s for ‘high company!’ Howeve
r, she doesn’t realize that this language doesn’t always
mean sophistication or refinement.

The Ruined Maid - Summary

In the 4th and 5th stanzas, the poem looks at Melia’s
body and her health. The first girl notices that Meli
a’s hands are no longer “like paws” (from manual la
bor) nor does she presently have “megrims or melan
choly” (migraine headaches or depression).

The poem ends with Melia’s assertion that “You ain’

t ruined,” emphasizing the differences between the
two girls and the choices they have made.

The Ruined Maid - Summary

Hardy’s focuses on the troubles of young women who
are prostitutes. He simultaneously displays both sym
pathy and a lack of compassion for both women, thu
s the poet’s attitude is a two-sided viewpoint.

The title is also paradoxical – a ‘maid’ is an old word

for virgin yet she is ‘ruined’ and thus cannot be a vir
gin. This contradiction highlights the hypocrisy at wo
rk in Victorian society/early 20th century’s view of w
omen.

The Ruined Maid -Analysis

The girl is impressed by Melia’s appearance, language
and wealth. She feels admiration, even jealousy, for
Melia’s new life in ‘Town.’ Melia has returned with w
hat look like better possessions, clothes and speech.

However, the girl doesn’t understand the source of th

ese items nor does she understand that ‘gay bracelets
and bright feathers’ aren’t really clothes of high soci
ety. She doesn’t see them for what they are: accessor
ies and symbols of a prostitute.

The Ruined Maid -Analysis

Melia’s feelings on her occupation are also ambiguous. S
he likes her dress and diction and she proudly says she h
as ‘some polish’. She boasts that she doesn’t have to wo
rk and has a ‘lively’ existence. However, her last statem
ent is not a boast.

The girl says, ‘I wish I had feathers, a fine sweeping go

wn,/ And a delicate face, and could strut about Town!’
Melia replies, ‘My dear—a raw country girl, such as you
be,/ Cannot quite expect that. You ain’t ruined.’

The Ruined Maid -Analysis

Melia’s final 3 words seem like a sad confession in which
she wishes she wasn’t morally ruined and remained fina
ncially ruined instead. Or perhaps it’s just Melia’s haugh
ty behaviour towards her companion.

The poet’s attitude toward his subject is amazingly rest

rained. The poem doesn’t directly condemn prostitutio
n, yet it does evoke sympathy for both young women. T
he dominant comment is that both are “ruined,” one fin
ancially and one morally.

The Ruined Maid -Analysis

Hence, the poem is not an attack on the evils of pros
titution or the hypocrisy of Victorian society, but a la
ment for the troubles of both girls. 1 girl is morally p
ure but condemned to live in poverty.

The other is immoral with expensive clothes, yet this

is hardly an improvement. Both girls are doomed to
miserable existences.

The Ruined Maid -Analysis

Victorian England had very emotionally and sexually c
onservative attitudes. However, the facts tell a slight
ly different story.

According to some estimates, around 20% of teenage

girls in London in the 1890s may have been forced int
o supporting themselves through prostitution.

The Ruined Maid - Context

William Butler Yeats (13 June 1
865 – 28 January 1939) was born
in Dublin, Ireland.

At 2 Yeats moved to London, bu

t spent his childhood moving be
tween London and the nice cou
ntryside of Ireland.

W.B Yeats - Biography

Yeats published his first poem in 
1885. In 1889, Yeats met Maud Go
nne who was an Irish revolutionar
y. He fell in love, which lasted his
whole lifetime.

Gonne didn’t love him but they w

ere friends. Years later, Yeats pro
posed to her daughter and was rej
ected. However he did marry in 1
916 aged 51.

W.B Yeats - Biography

Ireland was chaotic during Yeats’ l
ifetime because of political unres
t, the rise of Irish Nationalism and
the Irish civil war.

Yeats devoted himself to the Irish

Literary Revival and Irish patriotis
m, seeking to develop a new litera
ture tradition based on Irish mytho
logy.

W.B Yeats - Biography

Yeats’ poetry was received well
throughout his life and he found
ed the Abbey Theatre, an import
ant cultural place in Ireland.

In 1923, Yeats was awarded the

Nobel Prize for Literature.

W.B Yeats - Biography

Interestingly, Yeats’ greatest p
oetry was written between the
ages of 50 and 75.

He wrote his greatest collectio

ns The Tower and Last Poems y
ears after he won the Nobel Pr
ize for Literature.

W.B Yeats - Biography

In 1939, Yeats died in France at
the age of 74.

Because his poems overlap the

19th and 20th centuries, Yeats is
a unique poet. Today, he is reg
arded as the one of greatest po
et of the 20th century.

W.B Yeats - Biography

"The Second Coming" was written in 1919 and is
included in Yeats’ poetry collection Michael Rob
artes and the Dancer (1921).

The poem uses Christian ideas about the Apocal

ypse and the Second Coming as metaphor to des
cribe the atmosphere in Europe.  The poem is co
nsidered a major work of Modernism.

The Second Coming - Introduction

Line 1-4: The speaker describes a scene - a falcon, turni
ng in a widening “gyre” (spiral) cannot hear the falconer
(his master). This means that discipline between master
and servant has broken down.

The speaker tells us that this loss of control means that t

hings will fall apart and centre of society cannot hold tog
ether. Then he suggests that anarchy has been unleashed
in the world.

The Second Coming – Summary

Line 5-8: The speaker describes a nigh
tmare-like scene of anarchy and chaos
where the sea (the tide) is coloured wi
th blood. He believes innocence has dr
owned in this sea.

The speaker says that the best people l

ack conviction (strength) and the worst
people are full of passionate intensity.

The Second Coming – Summary

Lines 9-11: The speaker believes the world now is
near a revelation and the Second Coming is at han
d.

The Second Coming is the Christian idea that Jesu

s will return to Earth amid chaos or because of the
appearance of the Anti-Christ, sometimes called Th
e Beast of the Apocalypse. Apocalypse means the
end of the world.

The Second Coming – Summary

Lines 11-13: But as the speaker says ‘the Seco
nd Coming’ he is troubled by the thought of ‘a
vast image of the Spiritus Mundi.’

This is the belief that human minds are linked t

o a single intelligence. This intelligence causes
certain universal symbols to appear in individu
al’s minds.

The Second Coming – Summary

Lines 13-17: He suggests that so
mewhere in the desert there is a
giant sphinx (A shape with lion bo
dy and the head of a man). Its ga
ze is as blank and pitiless as the h
arsh desert sun.

It slowly moves around while the

shadows of angry desert birds spir
al around it.

The Second Coming – Summary

 Lines 18-20: Darkness has dropped over the
speaker’s sight. He then prophesizes that dis
aster and universal human suffering is comin
g.

This is because after 20 centuries of uninterr

upted “stony sleep,” a monster has been aw
oken and made angry by a “rocking cradle.”

The Second Coming – Summary (18-22)

Lines 20-22: This ‘rocking cradle’ has nurtured a ‘r
ough beast’ and this beast moves slowly towards Be
thlehem to be born. The beast unstoppably creeps
toward its destiny as civilization’s ultimate nemesis
/enemy.

However, the identity of this ‘beast’ is ambiguous

and thus we must decide for ourselves who this bea
st represents.

The Second Coming – Summary

‘The Second Coming’ is written in loose iambic
pentameter although sometimes it’s unpredict
able rhythm seems closer to free verse.

The rhymes are also random. Apart from the t

wo opening couplets, the rhymes are only coin
cidental, such as “man” and “sun.” The rando
mness of the rhymes reflects the chaos describ
ed in the poem.

The Second Coming - Form

‘The Second Coming’ is one of Yeats’ most famo
us poems because of its stunning, violent imager
y and terrifying Biblical language.

It is also the most obscure and difficult of Yeat’s

poems to explain, although it’s power comes fro
m this ambiguity. The poem is a statement about
powerful forces in history and the conflict betwe
en the modern and ancient world.

The Second Coming - Analysis

Structurally, the poem is quite simple. The first half
describes the present world (things falling apart, ana
rchy) and the second half is about how these conditi
ons suggest a Second Coming is imminent.

The Second Coming is the Christian idea that Jesus

will return to Earth amid anarchy or because of the a
ppearance of the Anti-Christ sometimes called The B
east of the Apocalypse. The Apocalypse means the e
nd of the world.

The Second Coming – Analysis

However, in this poem this Second Coming will not b
e Jesus, like in the Bible. This Second Coming will a n
ew messiah or a “rough beast,” like a sphinx.

This sphinx moves out of the desert and walks slowly

towards Bethlehem. This description is not complica
ted, but the question about what the Sphinx should r
epresent is much more complex.

The Second Coming – Analysis

Yeats spent years creating an elabor
ate, mystical theory of the universe
. 

Yeat’s theory centres on a diagram

made of two conical spirals, one insi
de the other, so that the widest par
t of one of the spirals rings around t
he narrowest part of the other spira
l, and vice versa.

The Second Coming - Analysis

Yeats believed that this image (he called the spirals
“gyres”) captured the contrary motions intrinsic wit
hin the historical process.

He divided each gyre into specific regions that repr

esented particular kind of historical period. He also
thought it could represent the psychological phases
of an individual’s mental development.

The Second Coming - Analysis

‘The Second Coming’ was intended
to describe the current historical m
oment in terms of these gyres.

Yeats believed that the world was o

n the threshold of an apocalyptic re
velation, as history reached the end
of the outer gyre and began moving
along the inner gyre.

The Second Coming - Analysis

In other words, the world’s progressive path alon
g the gyre of science, democracy and heterogene
ity was falling apart, like the widening flight-pat
h of the falcon that has lost contact with the falc
oner.

The next age’s character will not be from the gyr

e of science and democracy but from the contrar
y inner gyres which oppose these things.

The Second Coming - Analysis

The “rough beast” is the symbol of this new age: the risi
ng sphinx is his vision of the character of the new world.
A vision that is terrifying and negative.

Yet Yeats never gives us a clear idea about what this ‘vi
sion’ is. Famously, in Greek mythology the Sphinx gave
people riddles and the Sphinx in this poem functions in t
he same way. There is no definitive answer and we must
solve this riddle by ourselves.

The Second Coming - Analysis

The poem’s reference to Bethlehem and the rocking
cradle (a baby’s bed) is an allusion to the birth of Jes
us. It appears that the Sphinx was awoken angry from
its ‘stony sleep’ due to a terrible nightmare.

The poem does not elaborate on what this nightmare

is, but it suggests that Western Christian civilization
has somehow provoked this disaster and it will be rep
laced by something possibly more sinister.

The Second Coming - Analysis

 This poem was written at the end of the First World
War (1914-1919) and thus Yeats had been exposed to
the true horror of war and modern military power.

Yeats was also greatly troubled by the Russian Revolu

tion in Russia. He feared the rise of totalitarian gove
rnments and fascism in Europe. He was worried Euro
pe was entering a new “Dark Age” and that civilisatio
n was somehow collapsing.

The Second Coming - Historical Context

 So although this poem refers to a post-1919 worl
d, its sense of doom and fear about the future w
as also prevalent in society pre-1914 and World
War I.

The end of the Victorian century was culturally f

rightening for many people, who feared change
and the decay of a moral society.

The Second Coming - Historical Context