Nutrition

iGCSE Biology
You are what you eat!!

• In this lesson you will

– Look at what is a balanced diet
– Discuss what happens if you don’t eat a
balanced diet
Learning Outcomes

• describe the use of microorganisms in the

food industry, with reference to yoghurt,
bread and single cell protein
• describe the uses, benefits and health
hazards associated with food additives,
including colourings
Learning outcomes

• discuss:
– the problems of world food supplies
– the problems which contribute to famine
Balanced Diet
What is a balanced diet?
• Your diet must include five groups of food
substances
– Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and
vitamins
• It must also include water and fibre.
• A balanced diet is a diet that provides
enough of these substances in the correct
amount and proportions to keep you
healthy.
Nutrients
 Main Nutrients

Nutrient Elements Use in body Good food sources

present
Carbohydrate Carbon, Source of Rice, potato, bread
hydrogen, energy
oxygen
Fats and oils Carbon, Source of Butter, milk, cheese,
hydrogen, energy egg yolk
oxygen Insulation
Protein Carbon, Growth and Meat, fish, eggs,
hydrogen, tissue repair soya, milk
oxygen,
nitrogen
Red meat, butter: White rice, white bread,
use sparingly potatoes, pasta, sweets:
use sparingly
Dairy or calcium
supplement: 1–2 servings
Fish, poultry, eggs:
0–2 servings
Nuts, legumes:
1–3 servings
Vegetables in Fruits:
abundance 2–3 servings
Whole-grain Plant oils
foods at at most
most meals meals
Daily excercise and weight control

Healthy eating pyramid

Learning Outcomes
• list the principal sources of, and describe the
importance of:
– vitamins (C and D only)
– mineral salts (calcium and iron only)
– fibre
– water
• describe the deficiency symptoms for:
– vitamins (C and D only)
– mineral salts (calcium and iron only)
Vitamin C
• Function
– Maintain healthy skin and gums
• Good Food Source
– Citrus fruits, black currants, cabbage, tomato,
guava, mango
• Effect of deficiency
– Scurvy
• Bleeding under skin
• Bleeding gums
Vitamin D
• Function
– Needed to maintain hard bones
– Helps absorb calcium from small intestine
• Good Food Source
– Milk, cheese, egg yolk, fish liver oil
– Made in skin when exposed to sunlight
• Effect of deficiency
– rickets
Calcium

• Function
– Healthy teeth and bones
– Normal blood clotting
• Good Food Source
– Milk, cheese, fish
• Effect of deficiency
– Rickets
– Slow blood clotting
Iron
• Function
– Formation of haemoglobin in red blood cells
• Good Food Source
– Red meat, liver, kidney, eggs, green vegetables
(spinach), chocolate
• Effect of deficiency
– Anaemia
• Constant tiredness
• Lack of energy
Fibre
• Function
– This is cellulose which we can not digest
– It adds bulk to the undigested food in the intestines,
maintaining peristalsis
• Good Food Source
– Vegetables, fruit, wholemeal bread
• Effect of deficiency
– Constipation
– Long term deficiency may lead to bowel cancer
Water
• Function
– Formation of blood, cytoplasm
– Solvent for transport of nutrients and removal
of waste
– Enzymes only work in solution
• Good Food Source
– Drinks, fruits, vegetables
• Effect of deficiency
– dehydration
 Main
Nutrients

fibre vitamins

Nutrients

water minerals
Micro-organisms in the food
industry

• Micro-organisms are heterotrophic – they take in

ready made foods molecules from their
environment.
• Examples of Microbes useful in food production
– Acetobacter – vinegar production
– Lactobacillus - yoghurt and cheese production
– “ ripening” bacteria in cheese production
– Fusarium and mycoprotein
Use of micro-organism
process Use of microorganism

Yeast is mixed with flour, sugar and water to make dough. The yeast respire the
Baking sugar and produce pockets of carbon dioxide that makes the dough rise.
When the bread is baked the yeast is killed.

Yeast respires sugar to form ethanol and carbon dioxide. The ethanol makes the
Brewing drink alcoholic and the carbon dioxide gives the drink its fizz. The process is
called fermentation.
Bacteria are used to ferment milk at 46oC. As a result lactic acid is produced
Yoghurt which makes the milk lumpy (coagulate). The temperature is then reduced to 5 oC
making to prevent further bacterial action. The whole process is carried out in sterile
conditions

This is a protein produced by microorgansism such as bacteria. Fungi or

Single-cell unicellular algae in a fermentation vessel. While the product contains 72%
protein it does not taste very nice and is expensive to produce. An alternative is
protein quorn – this is a mycoprotein made from a filamentous FUNGUS, which has
12.2% protein, low fat content and 6% fibre.
Food Additives

• Food Additives are substances with no

nutritional value
• They are added to improve the
– Appearance
– Flavour
– Texture
– Storage properties of food
antioxidants

• Stop food reacting with oxygen, which may

spoil the taste of the food or change it’s
colour
Colourings

• Improve the appearance of food

• Some colourings can be hazardous
– Sunset yellow
• Hyperactivity
• Allergic reactions and asthma

Tartrazine

Caramel
Flavourings

• Enhance the taste of the food

– MSG – monosodium glutamate in processed
food
– Sugar
– Artificial sweeteners e.g. aspartame
Preservatives

• Give processed foods a longer shelf life by

preventing the growth of micro-organisms
• Disadvantages of preservatives
– Sulphur dioxide - destroys vitamin B1
– Sodium nitrite - carcinogen
Emulsifiers

• Stops oil and water separating out into

different layers.
– lecithin
 What happens if you don’t eat a
balanced diet.
What is this cartoon trying
to demonstrate?

Can you think of any

examples of health
problems that arise from not
eating a balanced diet?

Give three examples and

explain the effects on health.
Dietary requirements

• Adequate diet
– Provides sufficient energy for the performance
of metabolic work
• Balance diet
– Provides all the dietary requirements in the
correct proportions
• 1/7 fat
• 1/7 protein
• 5/7 carbohydrate
Dietary requirements
• Energy is provided by fat and carbohydrate intake
• Dietary requirements depend on
– Age
• Energy demand increases until we stop growing
– Sex
• Males use up more energy than females
– Activity
• Physical work will use up more energy than office work.
An Unbalanced diet
Malnutrition

• An unbalanced diet could lead to

– Obesity
• Risks include coronary heart disease and diabetes
– Too much animal fat can lead to high cholesterol
• Risks include coronary heart disease and angina
– Lack of protein in diet can lead to kwashiorkor
– Lack of fibre can lead to constipation and bowel cancer
– Vitamin and mineral deficiencies
Famine
• A severe shortage of food can lead to famine.
• Malnutrition
– Suffer from deficiency disease
– weakened immune system
• Results in
– Adults too ill to work
– Children become ill, adults care for them
– People die and society lacks experience and knowledge
Problems that lead to famine

• unequal distribution of food

– Some areas produce more food
• environment is more suitable
• More advanced agriculture
– Food surpluses can not always be moved to areas where
food is limited
• Drought
– Water is essential for plant growth and for healthy
animals
– Low rainfall reduces crop yield.
Problems that lead to famine

• Flooding
– Unpredictable flooding can reduce crop yield
– Plants are damaged
– Fertile soil can be washed away
• increasing population
– Need for food increases
– More buildings reduces land available
– More domestic animals reduces land available for food
production
Digestion
Learning Outcomes
• identify the gross structure of the
alimentary canal and associated organs
(mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine: duodenum and ileum, large
intestine: colon and rectum, anus, pancreas,
liver)
• define ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion
Learning Outcomes

• identify the types of human teeth and

describe their functions
• state the causes of dental decay and
describe the proper care of teeth
Learning Outcome

• describe the processes of chewing and

peristalsis
What happens to the food we
eat?
Swallowing (& not choking)
Digestion in the mouth and
oesophagus
• Chewed food is mixed with saliva in the mouth
• Saliva contains
– Amylase is an enzyme which starts to digest starch into
sugars (maltose)
– Mucus helps soften the food making it easier to
swallow
• The bolus travels down the oesophagus with the
aid of peristalsis
What happens to the food we eat?

• Ingestion
– Intake of food into the mouth
• Digestion
– Breaking down large, insoluble food molecules
into smaller soluble ones using enzymes
(mechanical and chemical digestions)
• Absorption
– Movement of digested food molecules pass
across the wall of the small intestine into the
blood or the lymph
• Assimilation
– Uptake of food molecules by cells
• Egestion
– Passing out of undigested food, in the form of
faeces, from the anus
 mouth Salivary glands

oesophagus
tongue

trachea
liver
stomach

Gall bladder
pancreas
Small Duodenum
intestine ileum colon Large
rectum intestine

appendix
anus
Human digestive system
Alimentary Canal
Digestive systems
Everybody’s got one!
Digestion of Food
• The digestion of food can either be mechanical or
chemical.
• Mechanical digestion includes
– Chewing
– Action of muscles in oesophagus, stomach and small
intestine
• In chemical digestion enzymes catalyse the
breakdown of larger food molecules into smaller
food molecules.
Mechanical Digestion

• Mechanical digestion
– teeth are used to bite pieces of food and to
chew it into smaller pieces
• The shapes of teeth are suited to their
function.
– Incisors and canines are used for biting
– Premolars and molars are used for chewing and
crushing food.
Dental Adaptations
Human Jaw
teeth
• There are different types of teeth, each specially
shaped to perform a particular job.
– Incisor
• A broad flat sharp tooth found at the front of the mouth.
Designed for biting and cutting food.
– Canine
• A sharp pointed tooth for piercing flesh and tearing.
– Pre-molar & molar
• A broad flat tooth with many cusps. Its rough surface is used
for crushing, grinding and chewing food
teeth
1. Milk teeth / deciduous teeth (5 months)
• Age 24-30 yo, most children have a set of 20
teeth.
• 7 yo, teeth fall out

2. Permanent teeth (17 yo)

• 20 + 12 new teeth = 32 teeth
 Structure of a tooth

crown

root
 Causes of dental decay
• Bacteria and food deposits form plaque
• Bacteria feed on sugars and produce acid
• Acid dissolves the enamel forming a hole
• Dentine dissolves more rapidly
• If hole reaches pulp cavity can lead to bacterial
infection, toothache and abscess
Gum Disease
• Gums swell, become inflamed, and may bleed
when you brush your teeth.
• Tooth becomes loose  Needs removing
Tooth Decay
Proper care of teeth

• Avoid sugary foods

• Use dental floss or a tooth pick
• Use a fluoride toothpaste
• Visit dentist regularly
Fluoride

• Growing children absorb fluoride from their

diet
• It becomes part of enamel of developing
teeth
• Enamel becomes more resistant to tooth
decay
 Adding fluoride to public water
supplies

• Advantages • Disadvantages
– Tooth decay in – Form of mass medication
children decreases – Fluoride can cause mottling
– No need to buy (white patches) of teeth
fluoridated – Only benefits growing
toothpaste children
– Unnecessary if proper care of
teeth is taken
– Side effects (bone cancer?)
Peristalsis in the gullet
Digestion in Alimentary Canal
• Physical Digestion
– Increases the surface area of food
• Chewing in the mouth
– Purpose??

• Chemical Digestion
– Enzymes act as biological catalysts – they
speed up the process
– They work efficiently at body temperature
(37OC) and at a suitable pH
Digestive enzymes
• There are different types of digestive enzyme
– Proteases break down proteins into amino acids
– Lipases break down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
– Amylase breaks down starch into maltose (sugar)
• Maltose is then broken down by maltase to form glucose
 Summary – digestive enzymes

Enzyme Site of action substrate End products

Amylase Mouth, Maltose

Starch
duodenum Glucose
Protease Stomach,
Protein Amino acids
duodenum
lipase Fatty acids
duodenum fat
glycerol
Chemical Digestion
• Hydrogen carbonate ions
– Secreted by pancreas
– Neutralises acid, enabling enzymes in small intestine to
work 

• Bile
– Produced by liver, stored in gall bladder, secreted into
small intestine
– Emulsifies fats (Larger surface area for enzymes to
work on)
 Small intestine
– chemical digestion
• digestive enzymes
– absorption through lining
• over 6 meters!
• small intestine has huge surface area = 300m2 (~size of tennis court)
• Structure
– 3 sections
• duodenum = most digestion
• jejunum = absorption of nutrients & water
• ileum = absorption of nutrients & water
 Duodenum
• 1st section of small intestines
– acid food from stomach mixes with digestive juices
Absorption in the ileum

• The small intestine is well designed for

absorption, it has
– Thin lining
– A good blood supply
– A very large surface area (about 9m2)
Villi
• Increase the surface area for absorption
• Each villus contains
– Blood capillaries that absorb glucose and amino acids
– Lacteals which absorb fatty acids and glycerol
• Absorption is by
– Diffusion – thin lining only 1 cell thick
– Active transport – cells contain mitochondria to
provide energy
Absorption in the Villi
Hepatic portal vein

• Transports absorbed food from the small

intestine to the liver
• After a meal, high concentrations of glucose
and amino acids are in the blood
– The liver reduces the levels back to normal
 The liver
• Excess glucose?
• converted to glycogen for storage
• Excess amino acids?
• The liver removes these from the blood and
breaks them down to form an energy source and
urea.
Fat

• Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into

the lacteals
• Body cells take up the re-formed fat
molecules
– Used in respiration as a source of energy
– Stored
Large intestine and the
elimination of waste.

• A watery mix of enzymes and undigested

food (mainly fibre) moves into the colon.
• Water is absorbed back into the blood
stream.
• Faeces are compacted in the rectum and
egested through the anus.
 Class Discussion (a group of 4)
1. Explain how age, gender, and activity afffect
the dietary needs of humans including during
pregnancy and whilst breast-feeding.
2. Explain the causes and effects of protein-
energy malnutrition (e.g. Kwashiorkor and
Marasmus)
3. Describe the effects of malnutrition in relation
to starvation, constipation, coronary heart
disease, obesity and scurvy.
 Class Discussion (a group of 4)
4. List three health problems associated with
obesity?
5. A balanced diet contains these nutrients:
carbohydrate, vitamins, fats, minerals,
proteins and water.
– Which of these nutrients are organic and which are
inorganic?
– Which of these nutrients can provide energy?
– What is the role of fiber in the diet?
 Class Discussion (a group of 4)
6. What is diarrhoea?
7. Explain the treatment of diarrhoea using oral
rehydration therapy
8. What is cholera?
9. How does cholera cause diarrhoea,
dehydration and loss of salts from blood?
10.Where (in the alimentary canal) are amylase,
protease and lipase secreted?