AIR POLLUTION

CHAPTER 3
Air Pollution
Definition of air pollution
Sources of pollutants
Classification of pollutants
Air quality management
Control devices
Definition
Air pollution is the presence of one or more
contaminants in such quantities, such
characteristic and of such duration in
the atmosphere that may tend to be
injurious to human beings, plants and
animals,
or cause damage to the properties.
Layering of the Earth’s
Atmosphere
 Temperature
Pressure
Thermosphere

Mesopause

Mesosphere

Stratopause

Stratosphere

Tropopause
Ozone layer

Troposphere

Fig. 15-2, p. 346

The composition of air is as follows;

Composition Percentage %
Nitrogen (N2) 78.1
Oxygen (O2) 20.9
Argon (Ar) 0.93

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.03

Units of measurement
Measurements for suspended particulates and
gaseous contaminants are to be given on a
mass/volume basis (g/m3)

ppm  g mol mass 10 3

g / m 
3

L / mol
Air pollutants
Pollutants divided into 2 categories:

 Primary pollutants- emitted directly from

known sources.

 Secondary pollutants- produced from the

interaction of two or more primary pollutants
or from the interaction of primary pollutant
with substances in the atmosphere.
 Primary Pollutants
CO CO2 Secondary Pollutants
SO2 NO NO2
SO3
Most hydrocarbons
HNO3 H2SO4
Most suspended particles
H2O2 O3 PANs
Most NO3– and SO42– salts
Sources Natural Stationary

Mobile

Fig. 15-3, p. 347

Source of Pollutants
Biogenic: Pollutants from animals or plants.
Anthropogenic: Pollutants from human activities
Biogenic pollutants
 Sulfur dioxide- released into the atmosphere by volcanoes, or
as the oxidation product from oceanic phytoplankton.

 Nitrous oxide- emitted from soil surface by bacterial

denitrification.

 Hydrogen sulphide- produced by anaerobic decay.

 Ammonia- released from animal waste products.

 Biogenic particles such as pollen, spores and sea salts.

Anthropogenic sources
 Sulfur dioxide- commonly associated with black smoke, co-
production during fossil fuel combustion.

 Nitric oxide- produced from fossil fuel combustion.

 Nitrogen dioxide- formed from industrial operations involving

combinations between nitrogen and oxygen.

 Ozone- produced indirectly by ion generators by electric

discharge in oxygen.

 Particulate matter- produced from open burning, quarry and

cement industries
Classification of Pollutants
General classifications of air pollutants are:

1) Particulate matter
2) Carbon monoxide
3) Sulfur oxides
4) Oxides of nitrogen
5) Hydrocarbon
Gases and Particles
Particles (or “particulate matter”)
refers to solids or liquids which can be found in a
suspended state in gases or other liquids.
Include dust, fumes, smoke, fly ash, mist and spray

Important gaseous pollutants

Include sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen
(nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide are collectively
referred to as NOx), ozone, and carbon monoxide
(CO).
Particulates
Physical characteristics
Chemical characteristics
Biological characteristics
Physical characteristics

Size
 Measured in micrometer (m)
 Range from 0.01 – 100 m (Figure 7.3 page 432)
 50 m can be seen with the eye
 0.005 m observed through an electron
microscope
• Mode of formation
 Solid – dust, fly ash, smoke, fumes
 Liquid – mist and spray
1. Dust
Small and solid particles from crushing, grinding,
processing and handling of material.
Size range from 1.0-10000 m

2. Smoke
Fine and solid particles from the incomplete
combustion of organic particles
Size range from 0.5 – 1 m

3. Fumes
 Fine and solid particles formed by condensation of
vapor of solid materials
Size range from 0.03- 0.3 m
4. Fly ash
Noncombustible particles contained the gases arising
from combustion of coal
Size range from 1.0 -1000 m

5. Mist
Liquid particles by condensation of vapor
Called fog
Size range less than 10 m

6. Spray
Liquid particles formed by atomization of parent
liquids (pesticides and herbicides)
Size range from 10 -1000 10 m
Settling properties
Determine the settling velocities of particulates in air

g (  p   a )d p
2

vt 
18
Visibility
Relationship between visibility and particulate matter

Where
V = visibility (km)
r = density of particle (kg/m3)
r = particle radius (m)
K = scattering area ratio
M = mass concentration of particles (g/m3)
Chemical characteristic
Organic – phenol, organic acid and alcohol
Inorganic – nitrates, sulfates, iron, lead, zinc

Biological characteristic
Protozoa, bacteria, viruses, fungi, spores, pollens and
algae
Survive for a short time because lack of nutrients and
UV
Effects
High conc – health hazards to humans (failure of
respiratory system)
Lead
From inhalation & ingestion of lead-containing
particulates
Affect blood forming, nervous system, reproduction,
endocrine, cardiovascular etc
symptom:
 Acute– vomitting, bloody diarrhea, insomnia etc
 Chronic –headache, constipation, blue line along the gums
Standard and control
Eliminate lead from gasoline
Development of lead trap devices
High efficiency fine particulate control – electrostatic
precipitator, fabric filters, wet scrubbers
Hydrocarbon
Organic compound that contain only carbon &
hydrogen
Aliphatic HC – alkanes, alkenes & alkynes
Aromatic HC – biochemically active
Carcinogenic
Derived from benzene
Sources
Trasportation (incomplete combustion from fuel tank)
Evaporatives emission from fuel tank, crankcases,
carburetors
Forest fires, agricultural burning
Standard and control
Control technology
 Incineration
 Adsorption
 Absorption
 Condensation
 Substitution of other material
Carbon monoxide
Colorless, tasteless, odorless
Chemically inert under normal condition
Health effects
Affect human aerobic metabolism
High affinity for hemoglobin
Sources
Oxidation of methane gas from decaying vegetables
Human metabolism
Transportation-internal combustion engine
Solid waste disposal, forest fires, agricultural burning
Standard & control
Technology used
 Adsorption
 Absorption
 Condensation
 Combustion
Oxides of sulfur
Sulfur dioxide – colorless, nonflammable, non
explosive gas, suffocating odor
Effect on human health
Chronic respiratory diseases – bronchitis and
pulmonary emphysema
Sources
Burning of solid and fossil fuel
Fuel combustion in industry (primarily electric utilities)
Standard & control
Burning fuel with less sulfur
Removing sulfur from fuel
Converting coal by liquefaction of gasification
Cleaning up the combustion products
Dispersion by tall stacks
Oxides of nitrogen
Nitric oxide – inert gas, moderately toxic
NO can combine with hemoglobin – reduce the
carrying capacity of the blood
Irritates alveoli of the lungs
NO2
From lightning, forest fires, bacteria decomposition
Other Effects (Continued)
Oxides of nitrogen, in the presence of sunlight,
can also react with hydrocarbons, forming
photochemical oxidants or smog.
Also, NOx is a precursor to acidic precipitation,
which may affect both terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems.
Air Pollution Index (API)
API stands for Air Pollution Index.
In some countries AQI (air quality index) is used. 
 Both were developed as a simple way of indicating
how bad the air is at a given moment and locality
API or AQI is based on the level of a variety of primary
atmospheric pollutants;
sulphur dioxide (SO2),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
suspended particulates (PM10),
carbon monoxide (CO)
ozone (O3).
Some countries may also include hydrogen sulphide
(H2S) and heavy metals such as lead and mercury.
Air Pollution Index (API)
Air Pollution Index (API)
Meteorology and natural
purification
Meteorological variables
1. Heat
2. pressure ( wind speed and direction)
3. Wind
4. Moisture
Scale of motion
Scale of motion are related to mass movements of air
which may be global, continental, regional or local
According to geographic range of influence, the scale
of motion may be designated as
Macroscale
Mesoscale
Microscale
Scale of motion
A microscale event is short-lived (lasting only a few
minutes maximum) and only few meters of extent.
Mesoscale events are from 1 to 100 kilometers across
and last from several hours up to a day.
Synoptic scale is the scale used in most weather maps;
hundreds to thousands of kilometers across and with a
time frame lasting for many days.
Macroscale, is global scale –planetary pattern of
circulation
Heat
From the sun as short wave radiation
4 heat transfer occur in the troposphere
Greenhouse effect
Evaporation condensation cycle
Conduction
convention
Temperature – recorded at weather station
Lapse rate – the temperature decrease with an
increase in altitude
Pressure
The weight of the air above an object exerts a force
upon that object
The force exerted by an air mass is created by the
molecules that make it up and their size, motion, and
number present in the air
Wind
Wind is moving air. The Sun heats up some parts of
the Earth more than others and the wind spreads this
heat more evenly around the world. The map shows
the main world and local winds.
 Air Pollution Dispersion
Rate of dispersion of non-
reactive pollutant determines
concentration
“The solution to pollution is
dilution”
Air Pollution Dispersion
(cont.)
Our goal: predict air
pollution
concentrations given
knowledge of sources
and meteorology
Air Pollution Dispersion (cont.)
Gaussian behavior extends in two dimensions
Air Pollution Dispersion (cont.)
This assumption allows us to calculate
concentrations downwind of source using this
equation
 

where
     c(x,y) = contaminant concentration at the specified coordinate [g/m 3], 
     x = downwind distance [m], 
     y = crosswind distance [m], 
     Q = contaminant emission rate [g/s] 
     sy = lateral dispersion coefficient function [m], 
     sz = vertical dispersion coefficient function [m], 
     u = wind velocity in downwind direction [m/s], 
     H = effective stack height [m]. 
 If concentration along only the plume centerline
(wind direction)
2
  𝑄 1 𝐻
𝐶 𝑥 ,0 =
𝜋 𝑢𝜎𝑧𝜎𝑦 [ ( )]
𝑒𝑥𝑝 −
2 𝜎𝑧

If the effective stack height is zero

Values for Lateral Diffusion
Values for Vertical Diffusion (sz)
Air Pollution Dispersion (cont.)
Pasquill Stability Categories

Surface wind Day Night

speed at 10 m
(m/s) Incoming Solar radiation Cloud Cover

Strong Moderate Slight Thinly Overcast Mostly Cloudy

<2 A A-B B    

2-3 A-B B C E F

3-5 B B-C C D E

5-6 C C-D D D D

>6 C D D D D
Class A – very unstable atmospheric conditions
Class B – to unstable atmospheric conditions
Class C – to slightly unstable to neutral conditions
Class D – assumed for overcast conditions during day
or night regardless of wind speed – to stable
conditions
Class E – to stable atmospheric conditions
Class F – very stable atmospheric conditions
Night refer - period from 1 hour before sunset to 1 hour
after sunrise
 

 
where
Vs = stack velocity (m/s)
d = stack diameter (m)
u =wind speed (m/s)
P = pressure, kPa
Ts = stack temperature (K)
Ta = air temperature (K)
Example
 A power plant burns 5.45 tonnes of coal per hour and
discharges the combustion products through a stack
that has an effective height 75 m. The coal has a sulfur
content of 4.2 percent and the wind velocity at the top
of the stack is 6.2 m/s. The atmospheric conditions are
moderately to slightly unstable. Determine the
maximum ground level concentration of SO2 and the
distance from the stack at which occurs.
Example
It has been estimated that the emission of SO2 from a
coal-fired power plants is 1,656.2 g/s. At 3 km
downwind on an summer afternoon, what is the
centerline concentration of SO2 if the wind speed is
4.50 m/s?
Stack parameters;
H =120 m
Diameter =1.20m
Exit velocity = 10.0 m/s
Temperature = 315 C
Atmospheric conditions: P = 95.0 kPa and T =25 C
Control devises
Because air pollutants vary in size many orders of
magnitude, many different types of treatment
devices are required for emissions treatment. Table
9.1 page 518.
Particulate Control Equipment
A number of factors must be determined before a proper choice of collection
equipment can be made:
1. The physical and chemical properties of the particles;
2. The range of the volumetric flow rate of the gas stream;
3. The range of expected particulate concentrations (dust loadings);
4. The temperature and pressure of the flow stream;
5. The humidity;
6. The nature of the gas phase (such as corrosive and solubility
characteristics);
7. The required condition of the treated effluent
Example at table 9.2

61
Control Devices for Particulate
Contaminants
 5 major groups
1. Gravitational settling chambers
2. Centrifugal collectors
3. Wet collectors
4. Electrostatic precipitator
5. Fabric filters
Gravitational settling
chamber
Settling chambers use the force of gravity to remove
solid particles. The gas stream enters a chamber where
the velocity of the gas is reduced.
Large particles drop out of the gas and are recollected
in hoppers.
Gravitational settling chamber
 
Gravitational settling chamber
Application of Stokes Law

1
 18 h H  2
d p   
 gL P 

Adv: low pressure loss, simple design & maintenance

Disadv: much space required, low collection efficiency
Centrifugal collectors
Cyclone
 Centrifugal force – solid particles thrown to the wall
 Gas spiral upward
 Particle slide down of the wall into the hopper

How a Cyclonic Dust Collector Works.mp4

The particulate-laden gas is forced to change
direction.
Centrifugal force generated by spinning gas, the
particulate-laden gas are thrown to the walls of the
cyclone as the gas spirals upward
The particles slide down the walls of the cone
The walls of the cyclone narrow toward the bottom of
the unit, allowing the particles to be collected in a
hopper.
 The cleaner air leaves the cyclone through the top of
the chamber, flowing upward in a spiral vortex, formed
within a downward moving spiral.
Cyclones are efficient in removing large particles but
are not as efficient with smaller particles. For this
reason, they are used with other particulate control
devices
The collection efficiency determine by their diameter
ratio ,d /d50
1
 9 b  2

d 50   
 2N v  
 e i p 

d50= diameter of the particle with 50% efficiency (m)

 = gas viscosity (kg/m.s)
b = width of cyclone inlet (m)
Ne = number of effective turns within the cyclone
vi = inlet gas velocity (m/s)
p = density of the particulate matter (kg/m3)
   2
9 𝜇𝐵 𝐻
𝑑 0.5 =
[
𝜌 𝑝 𝑄𝑔 𝜃 ]
d50= diameter of the particle with 50% efficiency (m)
 = gas viscosity (kg/m.s)
B = width of cyclone inlet (m)
Qg = gas flow rate, m3/s
 = effective number of turns
p = density of the particulate matter (kg/m3)
 Value  may be determined

L1 = length of cylinder
L2 = length of cone
Example 9-2
An air stream with a flowrate of 4.5 m3/s is passed
through a cyclone of standard proportion. The
diameter of the cyclone is 1.6 m, and the air
temperature is 50°C. Determine the removal efficiency
for a particle with a specific gravity of 1.2 and a
diameter of 30µm
Wet collectors
Incorporating the particles into
liquid droplets
1. Spray towers
Dirty gas flow upward, entrained
particles collide with the liquid
droplets sprayed across the flow
passage
Liquid droplets containing the
particles settle by gravity to the
bottom of the chamber
Wet cyclone scrubbers
2. Wet cyclone scrubbers
High pressure spray nozzle
located in various places
within the cyclones chamber
generate a fine spray that
intercepts the small particles
entrained in the swirling gases
The particulate thrown to the
wall by centrifuge force
Venturi scrubbers
Venturi
Particulate matter, which accelerates as it enters the
throat, is driven into the slow moving
A water spray is injected and introduced near the high
velocity point at the inlet of the venturi throat.
The liquid droplets collide with the particles in the gas
stream
Water and particles fall down for later removal
Fabric Filter (baghouse filter)
Fabric filters, or baghouses, remove dust from a gas
stream by passing the stream through a porous fabric.
Dust-laden gases enter the baghouse and pass through
fabric bags that act as filters. The bags can be of woven
or felted cotton, synthetic, or glass-fiber material in
either a tube or envelope shape
The fabric filter is efficient at removing fine particles
and can exceed efficiencies of 99 percent in most
applications.
The selection of the fiber material and fabric
construction is important to baghouse performance.
Fabric Filter (baghouse filter)
Electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a particle control
device that uses electrical forces to move the particles
out of the flowing gas stream and onto collector plates.
The ESP places electrical charges on the particles,
causing them to be attracted to oppositely charged
metal plates located in the precipitator.
The particles are removed from the plates by rapping,
washing or plain gravity and collected in a hopper
located below the unit
Electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
Electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
 Efficiency to particle size

=0.04 to 0.2 m/s

A = area of the collection plate (m3)
w= drift velocity of the charged particles (m/s)
Q = flow rate of the gas stream (m3/s)
a = constant (s-1)
dp = diameter of particles
Control Devices for Gaseous
contaminants
Adsorption
Absorption
Condensation
Combustion
Adsorption

Adsorption is the binding of molecules or particles to

a surface.
In this phenomenon molecules from a gas or liquid
will be attached in a physical way to a surface.
The binding to the surface is usually weak and
reversible.
The most common industrial adsorbents are activated
carbon, silica gel, and alumina, because they have
enormous surface areas per unit weight.
The packed column is by far the most commonly used
for the absorption of gaseous pollutants.
The packed column absorber has a column filled with
an inert (non-reactive) substance, such as plastic or
ceramic, which increases the liquid surface area for the
liquid/gas interface.
The inert material helps to maximize the absorption
capability of the column.
In addition, the introduction of the gas and liquid at
opposite ends of the column causes mixing to be more
efficient because of the counter-current flow through
the column
Adsorption
Adsorption

Steam is used to purge captured pollutants from the

bed to a pollutant recovery device.
Regenerative systems are used when concentration of
the pollutant in the gas stream is relatively high.
By "regenerating" the carbon bed, the same activated
carbon particles can be used again and again.
Absorption

The removal of one or more selected components

from a gas mixture by absorption is probably the most
important operation in the control of gaseous
pollutant emissions.
Absorption is a process in which a gaseous pollutant is
dissolved in a liquid.
Water is the most commonly used absorbent liquid.
As the gas stream passes through the liquid, the liquid
absorbs the gas,
Absorption
Absorption

Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers, and there

are various types of absorption equipment.
The principal types of gas absorption equipment
include
spray towers,
packed columns,
spray chambers,
venture scrubbers.
Condensation
Condensation is the process of converting a gas or
vapor to liquid.
Any gas can be reduced to a liquid by lowering its
temperature and/or increasing its pressure.
The most common approach is to reduce the
temperature of the gas stream, since increasing the
pressure of a gas can be expensive.
Condensation
Condensers used for pollution control are
 contact condenser
 surface condensers.
In a contact condenser, the gas comes into contact
with cold liquid.
In a surface condenser, the gas contacts a cooled
surface in which cooled liquid or gas is circulated, such
as the outside of the tube.
Surface condenser
Contact condenser
Incineration (combustion)
Most used to control the emissions of organic
compounds from process industries.
The technique refers to the rapid oxidation of a
substance through the combination of oxygen with a
combustible material in the presence of heat.
When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream is
converted to carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Incineration (combustion)
Incomplete combustion will result in some pollutants
being released into the atmosphere.
Smoke is one indication of incomplete combustion.
Equipment used to control waste gases by combustion
can be divided in three categories:
1. direct combustion or flaring
2. thermal incineration
3. catalytic incineration.
Incineration (combustion)
Choosing the proper device depends on many factors,
including
 type of hazardous contaminants in the waste stream,
 concentration of combustibles in the stream,
 process flow rate,
 control requirements,
 an economic evaluation.