PART – I UNIT - II

(LINEAR PART – II
MEASUREMENTS) (ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS)

1. Linear Measuring Instruments 1. Angular Measuring

2. Evolution Instruments
3. Types 2. Types
4. Classification 3. Bevel Protractor
5. Limit gauges 4. Clinometers angle gauges
6. Gauge design 5. Sprit levels sine bar
7. Terminology & Procedure
6. Angle alignment telescope
8. Concept of inter –
changeability & selective 7. Autocollimator
Assembly 8. Applications

1
LINEAR MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
• Linear measurement applies to measurement of lengths, diameter,
heights and thickness including external and internal measurements.
• The line measuring instruments have series of accurately spaced
lines marked on them. Ex. Scale.
• The instruments used for linear measurements can be classified as:

1.Direct measuring instruments

1.Graduated
 2.Non Graduated

2.Indirect measuring instruments

2
SCALES
• The most common tool for linear measurements is the
scale (also known as rules, or rulers).
• Although plastic, wood and other materials are used
for common scales, precision scales use tempered
steel alloys, with graduations scribed onto the surface.
• These are limited by the human eye.

CALIPERS
Caliper is an instrument used for measuring
distance between or over surfaces comparing
dimensions of work pieces with such standards as
plug gauges, graduated rules etc.

3
VERNIER CALIPERS
Vernier calipers are precision measuring instruments that give an
accuracy of 0.1 mm to 0.01 mm.
The main scale carries the fixed graduations, one of two measuring
jaws and a vernier head having a vernier scale engraved on.
The vernier head carries the other jaw and slides on main scale.
The vernier head can be locked to the main scale by the knurled
screw attached to its head.

4
VERNIER CALIPERS
Least count (L.C.) = 1 M.S.D - 1 V.S.D
In this Vernier caliper one main scale division (49mm) are divided
in to 50 equal part in the Vernier scale.
1 main scale division (1MSD = 1 mm
1Vernier scale division (1VSD = 49\50 mm
Least count = 1mm – 49\50
= 1\50 mm
Least Count = 0.02mm

5
Type A Vernier Caliper

6
Type B Vernier Caliper

7
Type C Vernier Caliper

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9
 VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE

• The main parts of a vernier height

gauge and their function are given.

1.base

2. beam

3.vernier slide

4. fine setting device

5. vernier plate

6. locking screws

7. scriber

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VERNIER DEPTH GAUGE
 Base
 Graduated beam
 Clamping screw
 Fine adjustment
mechanism
 Vernier scale

11
 MICROMETERS
• There are two types in it.

(i) Outside micrometer — To measure external dimensions.

(ii) Inside micrometer — To measure internal dimensions.

 A micro meter is a precision instrument used to measure a job,

generally within an accuracy of 0.01mm.Micrometer used to take the
outside measurements are know as outside micrometer.

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13
Inside micro meter

14
Stick micro meter

15
Micro meter depth
gauge

16
Blade type micro meter

17
Bench micro meter

18
 SLIP GAUGES
• These may be used as reference standards for transferring the
dimension of the unit of length from the primary standard to gauge
blocks of lower accuracy and for the verification and graduation of
measuring apparatus.
• Slip gauges with three basic forms are commonly found, these
are rectangular, square with center hole, and square without center
hole.
• Wringing or Sliding is nothing but combining the faces of slip
gauges one over the other. Due to adhesion property of slip gauges,
they will stick together. This is because of very high degree of
surface finish of the measuring faces. 
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Classification of Slip Gauges 
• Slip gauges are classified into various types according to their use as
follows:

1)Grade 2 
2)Grade 1 

3)Grade 0
4)Grade 00 

5)Calibration grade.

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1) Grade 2:

 It is a workshop grade slip gauges used for setting tools, utters and checking
dimensions roughly.

2) Grade 1: 

 The grade I is used for precise work in tool rooms.

3) Grade 0: 

• It is used as inspection grade of slip gauges mainly by inspection department.

4) Grade 00:

• Grade 00 mainly used in high pre ision works in the form of error detection
in instruments.

5) Calibration grade:

 The actual size of the slip gauge is calibrated on a chart supplied by the
manufactures.
21
• Manufacture of Slip Gauges

• The following additional operations are carried out to obtain the

necessary qualities in slip gauges during manufacture.

i. First the approximate size of slip gauges is done by preliminary

operations.

ii. The blocks are hardened and wear resistant by a special heat

treatment process.

 iii. To stabilize the whole life of blocks, seasoning process is done. 

iv. The approximate required dimension is done by a final grinding

process.

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Limit gauges

23
Continue……
• A limit gauge is not a measuring gauge. Just they are used as
inspecting gauges.
• The limit gauges are used in inspection by methods of attributes.

• This gives the information about the products which may be

either within the prescribed limit or not.
• This procedure is mostly performed by the quality control
department of each and every industry.
• Limit gauge are mainly used for checking for cylindrical holes
of identical components with a large numbers in mass production.

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Purpose of using limit gauges
•Components are manufactured as per the specified tolerance limits, upper

limit and lower limit. The dimension of each component should be within

this upper and lower limit.

•If the dimensions are outside these limits, the components will be rejected.

• If we use any measuring instruments to check these dimensions, the process

will consume more time. Still we are not interested in knowing the amount of

error in dimensions.

•It is just enough whether the size of the components within the prescribed

limits or not. For this purpose, we can make use of gauges known as limit

gauges.

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The common types are as follows:
1.Plug gauges.
2.Ring gauges.

3.Snap gauges.
1.Plug gauges
 The ends are hardened and accurately finished by grinding. One
end is the GO end and the other end is NOGO end.
 Usually, the GO end will be equal to the lower limit size of the hole
and the NOGO end will be the equal to the upper limit size of the
hole.

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Continue…

27
• If the size of the hole is within the limits, the GO end should go inside
the hole and NOGO end should not go.
• If the GO end and does not go, the hole is under size and also if NOGO
end goes, the hole is over size. Hence, the components are rejected in
both the cases.
1. Double ended plug gauges
• In this type, the GO end and NOGO end are arranged on both the ends of
the plug. This type has the advantage of easy handling.\
 2. Progressive type of plug gauges
• In this type both the GO end and NOGO end are arranged in the same
side of the plug. We can use the plug gauge ends progressively one after
the other while checking the hole. It saves time. Generally, the GO end is
made larger than the NOGO end in plug gauges. 
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TAPER PLUG GAUGE
• Taper plug gauges are used to check tapered holes. It has two check lines.
One is a GO line and another is a NOGO line.
• They are various types taper plug gauges are available

1) Taper plug gauge — plain

2) Taper plug gauge — tanged.

3) Taper ring gauge plain

4) Taper ring gauge — tang d.

29
RING GAUGES

• Ring gauges are mainly used for checking the diameter of shafts having

a central hole. The hole is accurately finished by grinding and lapping

after taking hardening process.

• The periphery of the ring is knurled to give more grips while handling

the gauges. We have to make two ring gauges separately to check the

shaft such as GO ring gauge and NOGO ring gauge

• But the hole of GO ring gauge is made to the upper limt size of the shaft

and NOGO for the lower limit.

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Thread Ring Gauges

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SNAP GAUGE
• Snap gauges are used for checking external dimensions. They are also
called as gap gauges.
• The different types of snap gauges are:

1. Double Ended Snap Gauge

2. Progressive Snap Gauge

3. Adjustable Snap Gauge

4.Combined Limit Gauges

5.Position Gauge

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SNAP GAUGE

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34
TAYLOR’ S PRINCIPLE

 It states that GO gauge should check all related dimensions.

Simultaneously NOGO gauge should check only one dimension at a time.
• Maximum metal condition

 If refers to the condition of hole or shaft when maximum material is left on

such as high limit of shaft and low limit of hole.
• Minimum metal condition
 If refers to the condition of hole or shaft when minimum material is left on
such as low limit of shaft and high limit of hole.

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Gauge design

36
37
 Applications of Limit Gauges

1.Thread gauges

2.Form gauges

3.Serew pitch gauges

4.Radius and fillet gauges

5.Feeler gauges

38
FEELER GAUGE
• A feeler gauge can be used to check
the following:
• Piston ring gap

• Piston ring side clearance

• Connecting rod side clearance

Radius Gauge
• A radius gauge is a tool used to measure the radius of an object.

40
Thread Pitch Gauge
• It used to quickly determine the pitch of various threads by matching the
teeth on the leaves with teeth on the work.

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 Comparator
A comparator works on the relative measurement
It gives only dimensional differences in relation to a
basic dimension
A comparator has to compare the unknown dimensions
of a part with some standard (Basic Size)
These are commonly used for linear measurement in
mass production
Classification
Depending on the amplification system, Comparators
are classified as
1. Mechanical Comparators
2. Electrical Comparators
3. Optical Comparators
4. Pneumatic Comparators 42
Mechanical comparators
• Mechanical comparators are extremely convenient to use
• It does not require any external power for its operation
• The measuring head consists of the work contact
plunger(Stylus)
• The movement due to size difference between standard and
work piece operates a pointer
• The pointer moves over a dial
• This movement of the plunger is magnified by means of the
gear train or levers
• The magnification of mechanical comparators is limited to
1000
• These are cheap and intended to measure external surfaces
• However the mechanical devices are subjected to wear
43
• Types of Mechanical Comparators
1. Dial indicator
2. Reed type mechanical comparator
3. The Sigma comparator

44
Dial indicator

• The Dial indicators are used to test,inspect the size and trueness of
finished work
• The measured accuracy is up to 0.01mm
Constructional Details
• The dial indicator consists of a base, column,arm,dial
indicator and stylus(work contact plunger)
• The arm can be adjusted at required height along
the column
• The work table is mounted on the base to provide a
reference surface
• The work is placed on the work table during
measurement
45
Dial indicator
• Mechanism
• Very slight upward pressure moves the stem / plunger upward
• The movement is indicated by the dial pointer
• The dial is graduated into 100 divisions
• The full revolution of the pointer about the scale corresponds to 1mm of the
plunger
• Thus a turn of the hand by one scale division represents a spindle travel of 0.01mm
• The movement of stem is transmitted by means of a toothed rack through a gear
train
• This movement is obtained around a dial face
• The required measuring pressure is provided by small springs incorporated in the
mechanism
• The indicator is adjusted zero by turning the rim of the dial
• The dial indicators are also available for ranges of measurement of 0-3,0-5,0-
10mm.
• These measurements indicate the movement (left) of the plunger

46
Sigma Comparator
The Sigma Comparator is a mechanical comparator in which
the amplification is obtained by means of a compound lever
Advantages: It has got a bold scale and larger indicating
pointer
Dis Advantages: Due to motion of parts ,there is wear in the
moving parts

47
 Sigma Comparator
Constructional details
• The vertical beam is mounted on flat steel springs connected to fixed
members
• The vertical beam which in turn are screwed to a back plate
• The assembly provides a frictionless movement with restraint from
the springs
• The hinged assembly carrying the forked arms incorporates a
hardened fulcrums
• The metal ribbon attached to the forked arms passes around the
spindle
• This spindle is to rotate in specially designed miniature ball
bearings
• The indicating pointer is secured to a boss on the disc
48
Sigma Comparator
Operating Principle :
• The various movements in the Sigma Comparator are shown in figure.
• The plunger is mounted on a pair of slit diaphragms in order to have
frictionless linear movement
• A knife edge is mounted on it and bears upon the face of the moving
member of a Cross strip hinge
• The cross strip hinge consists of the moving component and a fixed
member
• The cross strip hinge then connected by thin flexible strips alternately at
right angles to each other
• Thus if an external force is applied to the moving member it will pivot as
would a hinge about the line of intersection of the strips
• To the moving member an arm `Y` shape having the effective length `b` is
attached
• If the distance of the hinge from the knife edge be `a` then the
magnification of the first stage is `b/a
• A phosphor-Bronze strip is attached to the two extremities of the `Y` arm
• And is passed around a radius `r` attached to the pointer spindle
• If the length of pointer be `R` then R/r is the second stage of magnification
• In order to adjust the magnification ,distance `a` must be changed by
49
slackening and tightening the two screws attaching the knife edge to the
Reed type Mechanical Comparator
The instrument used to
measure linear
displacement of spindle
with the help of the reed
mechanism is known as
reed type Mechanical
comparator.

It is a device
magnifying small motions
of spindle.

50
 Reed type Mechanical Comparator
Constructional details :

• The reed mechanism is

frictionless device for
magnifying small motions of the
spindle

• It consists of a fixed block `A`

which is rigidly fastened to the
gauge head case

• The floating block `B` carries

the gauging spindle

51
 Reed type Mechanical Comparator
Constructional details :

• The floating block is also

connected horizontally to the
fixed block by reeds `C`

• A vertical reed is attached to

each block with upper ends
jointed together

• These vertical reeds are shown

in fig by letter `D`

• A pointer is attached to this joint

52
 Reed type Mechanical Comparator
Working principle:

• A linear motion of the spindle moves

the floating block vertically upwards

• This vertical movement causing the

vertical reed on the floating block to
slide past the vertical reed on the fixed
block

• The movement causes both reeds

swing through an arc

• As the point is nearly an extension of

the vertical reeds `M` it swings through
a much wider arc

53
 Electrical Comparator
An electrical comparator consists of the following three major part
such as
1) Transducer 
2) Display device as meter
3) Amplifier

54
 Electrical Comparator
Transducer
An iron armature is provided in between two coils held by a leaf
spring at one end. The other end is supported against a plunger. The
two coils act as two arms of an A.C wheat stone bridge circuit.
Amplifier 
The amplifier is nothing but a device which amplifies the input signal
into magnified output
Display device or meter
The amplified input signal is displayed on some terminal stage
instruments. Here, the terminal instrument is a meter.

55
 Electrical Comparator
Working principle
If the armature is centrally located between the coils, the inductance
of both coils will be equal but in opposite direction with the sign
change.
Due to this, the bridge circuit of A.C wheat stone bridge is balanced.
Therefore, the meter will read zero value. But practically, it is not
possible.
In real cases, the armature may be lifted up or lowered down by the
plunger during the measurement. This would upset the balance of
the wheat stone bridge circuit.
Due to this effect, the change in current or potential will be induced
correspondingly. On that time, the meter will indicate some value as
displacement.
This indicated value may be either for larger or smaller components.
As this induced current is too small, it should be suitably amplified
before being displayed in the meter.
56
 Electronic Comparator
Construction details
In the electronic comparator, the following components are set as follows:
i. Transducer
ii.  Oscillator
iii. Amplifier
iv.Demodulator
v. Meter

57
 Electronic Comparator
(i) Transducer
• It converts the movement of the plunger into an electrical
signal. It is connected with oscillator.

(ii) Oscillator
• The oscillator which receives electrical signal from the
transducer and raises the amplitude of frequency wave by
adding carrier frequency called as modulation.

(iii) Amplifier
• An amplifier is connected in between oscillator and
demodulator. The signal coming out of the oscillator is
amplified into a required level. 
58
 Electronic Comparator
(iv) Demodulator
• Demodulator is a device which cuts off external carrier
wave frequency. i.e. It converts the modulated wave into
original wave as electrical signal.

(v) Meter
• This is a display device from which the output can be
obtained as a linear measurement.

59
 Electronic Comparator
Advantages of Optical Comparators:
1. High degree of reliability
2. Remote measurement
3. High Magnification
4. Not sensitive to vibrations

Disadvantages:
5. High Cost
6. Heating of coils may alter the calibration
7. Need External Source- Electrical supply to operate
8. Fixed scale

60
 Optical Comparator
• There is no pure optical comparator but large magnification
is obtained by use of optical principle in optical
comparators.

• A mechanical instrument also contributes quite a lot for the

overall magnification. Hence sometimes it is referred as
‘Mech-optical comparator’.

• Magnification in case of optical comparators is obtained

with the help of light beams which has an advantage of
being straight and weightless. Optical comparators have
their own built in light source.

61
 Optical Comparator
Principle of Working:
• The optical principle adopted in the optical comparators is
‘optical lever’ and is shown in Fig.
• If a ray of light AC strikes a mirror, it is reflected as ray CO
such that, ∠ACN =∠NCO

62
 Optical Comparator
• Now, if the mirror is tilted through an angle a, the reflected ray of light has
moved through an angle of ‘2a’.
• In optical comparators, the minor is tilted by the measuring plunger movement
and the movement of reflected light is recorded as an image on a screen.
• Fig. shows the working principle of an optical-mechanical comparator in which
both mechanical and optical levers are used.

63
 Optical Comparator
Magnification:
• The magnification of optical comparator is defined as “the ratio between
distance moved by the indicating pointer (beam) and the displacement
of plunger”.

• The Magnification of optical comparators is usually 1000:1, with

measuring range of plus and minus 0.075 mm.

64
 Optical Comparator
Advantages:
1. High Accuracy
2. High Range
3. High Magnification
4. Light beam has No Inertia
5. No Parallex Eerror

Disadvantages:
6. Costly
7. Large Size
8. Need Source of Light - Electrical supply to operate light source
9. Heating of Instrument affects the accuracy of the measurement
10. Need of Dark Room
11. Reading not Convenient
65
 Pneumatic Comparator
• Pneumatic Comparators uses
air as a means of magnification
in metrology. This was
originally developed by the
Solex Company in France for
the calibration of carburettors.

• The first application was the

checking of the bores of motor-
car cylinder blocks. Now it is
almost used in production shop
for this purpose.

66
 Pneumatic Comparator
Working Principle:

• The Pneumatic Comparator is

based on Bernoulli’s theory. The
principle of working of a
Pneumatic comparator is shown
in figure.

• Air at a low (1,5kg./cm2) but

constant pressure, ps, is supplied
through a small jet ‘c’ into an
intermediate chamber and then
pass through a second orifice
gauging jet ‘G’ to atmosphere.

67
 Pneumatic Comparator
Working Principle:
• The component whose dimensions to
be checked is placed below the
gauging jet with some air gap as
shown on Fig.

• The amount of air escaping through

gap between work piece ‘p’ and
gauging jet ‘G’ will depend upon the
gap h. The gap h will affect the
intermediate pressure recorded by the
manometer “M”.

• If the gap ‘h’ is large, pressure

recorded would be small. On the other
hand if the gap ‘h’ is small, pressure
would be higher.
68
 Pneumatic Comparator
Working Principle:

• The gap ‘h’ initially set with the help of

known standard usually slips gauges.

• The component whose dimensions to be

checked is placed by removing the slip
gauges.

• If the component has variation in size than

the gap ‘h’ will increased or decreased.

• This will cause to change in intermediate

pressure, and will change in the
manometer reading. The manometer is
calibrated directly to read linear scale.

69
 Pneumatic Comparator
Advantages:
1. High Accuracy
2. High Magnification
3. Air jet used to clean the dust
4. They are the best for checking the ovality, straightness, flatness,
squareness, roundness, taperness and circular bores

Disadvantages:
5. Need of Auxiliary Equipment’s
6. Large Size
7. Non-Uniform Scale
8. Not Portable
9. Their accuracy will also affected by temperature and humidity

70
 Fluid Displacement Comparators
Fluid displacement comparators work on the principle of
displacement of fluid. These comparators find only limited
applications in metrology.

71
 Fluid Displacement Comparators
Working Principle:

The component to be checked is placed below the

measuring plunger.

If any deviation in size of the component then the

diaphragm deflects a small quantity of fluid.

This small quantity of deflected fluid will cause to

raise fluid in capillary tube.

A scale is available with the capillary tube with

indicates the limit points of fluid raised or
lowered.

A fluid displacement comparator is shown in Fig.

72
 Fluid Displacement Comparators

Magnification of fluid
displacement comparators is
approximately given by:

73
 Angular Measurements
• There are a wide variety of geometries that are measured in
angular units.

• These varieties include angular separation of bounding planes,

digression from a basic direction, angular spacing conditions
related to a circle, etc.

• Because of these diverse geometrical forms, different types of

methods, equipment and instruments are available to measure
angles in common angular units of degree, minute and second.

74
 Angular Measurements
• Several factors come into the role in the selection of
appropriate angular measuring instrument.

• These factors may be the size, general shape of the part, the location
and angular accessibility of the feature to be measured, expected a
range of accuracy, etc.

• As in angular measurement, they can be categorized into two groups.

• The first one is standard line instrument. It includes divided scales

like protractors, Bevel Protractors.

• The second category of angular measuring instruments is called face

standard instruments. Sine bars and angle gauges fall in this group.
75
 Angular Measurements
1. Protractors
a. Vernier Bevel Protractor
b. Dial Bevel Protractor
c. Optical Bevel Protractor
2. Sine Bars
3. Sine tables
4. Sine Centre
5. Angle Gauges
6. Sprit Level
7. Clinometers
8. Plain Index Centers
9. Optical Instruments for angular measurement such as auto-
colliometer
76
 Protractor
• A simple protractor consists of a blade that pivots about a
semicircular head that is graduated in angular units (e.g.,
degrees, radians).
• To use, the blade is rotated to a position corresponding to some
part angle to be measured and the angle is read off the angular
scale.

77
 Vernier Bevel Protractor
• It is probably the simplest instrument for measuring the angle between two
faces of component. It consists of a base plate attached to the main body,
and an adjustable blade which is attached to a circular plate containing
vernier scale.
• The adjustable blade is capable of rotating freely about the centre of the
main scale engraved on the body of the instrument and can be locked in any
position. An acute angle attachment is provided at the top as shown in Fig.
for the purpose of measuring acute angles.

78
 Vernier Bevel Protractor
• The base of the base plate is made flat so that it could be laid flat
upon the work and any type of angle measured. It is capable of
measuring from 0 to 360°.
• The vernier scale has 24 divisions coinciding with 23 main scale
divisions. Thus the least count of the instrument is 5′.
• This instrument is most commonly used in workshops for angular
measurements till more precision is required.

79
 Vernier Bevel Protractor
• Read off directly from the main scale the number of whole degrees between
0 on this scale and the 0 of the vernier scale. Then count, in the same
direction, the number of spaces from the zero on the vernier scale to a line
that coincides with a line on the main scale; multiply this number by 5 and
the product will be the number of minutes to be added to the whole number
of degrees.
• For example: Zero on the vernier scale has moved 28 whole degrees to the
right of the 0 on the main scale and the 3th line on the vernier scale
coincides with a line upon the main scale as  indicated. Multiplying 3 by 5,
the product, 15, is the number of minutes to be added to the whole number
of degrees, thus indicating a setting of 28 degrees and 15 minutes.

80
Vernier Bevel Protractor

81
Universal Bevel Protractor

82
 Optical Bevel Protractor
Optical protractor is a simple extension of the universal bevel
protractor. A lens in the form of an eye‐piece is provided to
facilitate easy reading of the protractor scale.

83
 Sine Bar
The sine bar is the most accurate instrument for measuring angles. It consists of
a accurate straight rectangular bar made of high quality steel and having two
accurately lapped cylindrical plugs or rollers at the ends.

Sine bar is specified by the distance between the centres of two rollers i.e.,
100mm, 200mm, 250mm, or 300mm, two rollers must be of same diameters. The
various parts of sine bar are hardened before grinding and lapping.

The rollers are so fixed that when sine bar is placed on surface plate, the surface
of the bar is exactly parallel to surface plate.

84
 Sine Bar
Types of Sine Bar:

85
 Sine Bar
Principle of Working of Sine Bar:

The principle of operation of the sine bar is based upon the application of
trigonometry. In a right angle triangle ABC shown in Fig. The ratio of the length
BC (perpendicular) to that of the length AB (hypotenuse) is referred to as the sine
of the angle θ

The ratio will always be the same irrespective of the length of sides of the
triangle. By placing the slip gauges under the one roller, the bar surface can be
made parallel to any angular surface of work.

Then by measuring the total height made by slip gauge, the angle can be
found by using the formula:
 Sine Bar
Measurement of Angle for Small Component:
 Sine Bar
Measurement of Angle for larger Component:
 Sine centre

This is a sine bar with block holding centre which can be adjusted and rigidly
clamped in any position.
Generally used for inspection of conical objects between centre.

These are used up to inclination of 60 degree.

Principle used here is same as of the sine bar.

89
 Sine Table

It is a convenient and accurate design for heavier components.

In that one roller of the sine bar is hinged on its datum surface.

So it can be swung at any angle from zero degree to ninety degree about its
hinged end.
Very useful in measuring angles of taper plug gauge.
90
 Angle gauges

Angle Slip Gauges as per IS : 6231 - 1971 , designed for the inspection and
calibration of angle, tapers, indexing plates, rotary scales, clinometers, dividing
heads, rotary tables etc.
 
Materials:
  Angle Gauge Blocks are made from High Carbon High Chromium Steel
which has the properties of aging stability in dimensions and wear resistance. The
working surfaces are hardened to 800HV. Also Angle Gauge Blocks available in
Tungsten Carbide.
91
 Angle gauges
Scope:
These angle gauges together with the
square block used to obtain any angle
between 0 and 360 degrees in steps of 6
seconds.

Special Features:

• Accuracy measurement of any angle

• No cumulative errors of division.
• Wringing property similar to slip gauges.
• High degree of reflectivity which
enables    them to   be used with    an
autocollimator.

92
Spirit
levels

• Spirit level is one of the most commonly used instruments for inspecting
the horizontal position of surfaces and for evaluating the direction and
magnitude of minor deviation from that nominal condition.
• It essentially consists of a close glass tube of accurate form. It is called as
the vial. It is filled almost entirely with a liquid, leaving a small space for
the formation of an air or gas bubble.
• To reduce the effect of heat transfer in handling spirit levels are made of a
relatively stable casting and are equipped with thermally insulated handles.

93
 Clinometer

The clinometer is used as precision setting tool, to set a tool head or table at
specific angle.
The clinometer are also used for checking angular, and relief angles on large
cutting tools and milling cutter inserts.
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 Clinometer

In clinometer the spirit level is mounted on the rotary member carried in a
housing. On the housing, there is a circular scale.
The clinometer is mainly used to determine the included angle of two adjacent
faces of work piece.
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 Auto-Collimator
Auto-collimator is an optical instrument used for the measurement of
small angular differences, changes or deflection, plane surface inspection etc.
  They are typically used to align components and measure deflections in
optical or mechanical systems.
An autocollimator works by projecting an image onto a target mirror and
measuring the deflection of the returned image against a scale, either visually
or by means of an electronic detector.
A visual autocollimator can measure angles as small as 0.5 arc
minute (0.15 mrad), while an electronic autocollimator can have up to 100
times more resolution.

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 Auto-Collimator
Basic principle
If a light source is placed in the flows of a collimating lens, it is projected as a parallel
beam of light. If this beam is made to strike a plane reflector, kept normal to the
optical axis, it is reflected back along its own path and is brought to the same focus.
The reflector is tilted through a small angle‘0’. Then the parallel beam is deflected
twice the angle and is brought to focus in the same plane as the light source.

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Working of Auto-collimator

98
 Applications of auto-collimator

1.Measuring the difference in height of length standards.

2.Checking the flatness and straightness of surfaces.

3.Checking squareness of two surfaces.
4.Precise angular indexing in conjunction with polygons.

5.Checking alignment or parallelism.

6.Comparative measurement using master angles.
7.Measurement of small linear dimensions.

8.For machine tool adjustment testing.

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 Angle Dekkor
• This is also a type of auto-collimator.
• There is an illuminated scale in the focal plane of the collimating
lens. This illuminated scale is projected as a parallel beam by the
collimating lens which after striking a reflector below the
instrument is refocused by the lens in the filed of view of the
eyepiece.
• In the field of view of microscope, there is another datum scale
fixed across the center of screen. The reflected image of the
illuminated scale is received at right angle to the fixed scale as
shown in fig.
• Thus the changes in angular position of the reflector in two planes
are indicated by changes in the point of intersection of the two
scales. One division on the scale is calibrated to read 1 minute.

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Angle Dekkor

101
 Angle Dekkor

Uses of Angle Dekkor:

(i) Measuring angle of a component

(ii)Checking the slope angle of a V-block
(iii)To measure the angle of cone or Taper gauge

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 Rollers
Rollers are precisely manufactured with high
accuracy for metrological applications.

It is used to determine both linear and angular

dimensions in conjunction with gauge blocks.

These are made of good quality steel and they are

hardened and tapered.

The length of the roller is equal to the diameter

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 Rollers
Measurement of angle by using rollers:
Angle if the right tapered piece can be measured by
using two rollers of different sizes, slip gauges and a dial
indicator.

The two rollers whose diameters are known and slip

gauges are placed on a surface plate.

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 Rollers
Measurement of angle by using rollers:

105
 Rollers
Measurement of angle by using rollers:

106
 Rollers
Checking the angle of taper plug gauge using rollers:

107
 Rollers
Checking the angle of taper plug gauge using rollers:

108
 Rollers
Measuring of included angle of an internal dovetail using rollers:

109
 Rollers
Measuring interior angle of a profile gauge using rollers:

110
 Rollers
Measuring angle of a tapered hole using rollers:

111
 Rollers
Measuring the taper angle of a shallow circular groove using
rollers:

112
 Rollers
Measuring the angle of a transverse recess having small taper
angle using rollers:

113
 Rollers
Measuring the internal taper angle in blind hole using rollers:

114
 Rollers
Measuring angle of V-groove using rollers:

115