Flow and liquid – level

 This chapter will be using terms and definitions from previous chapters as well as
introducing a number of new definitions related to flow and flow rate sensing.
 Velocity is a measure of speed and direction of an object. When related to fluids it is
the rate of flow of fluid particles in a pipe. The speed of particles in a fluid flow
varies across the flow, i.e., where the fluid is in contact with the constraining walls
(the boundary layer) the velocity of the liquid particles is virtually zero; in the center
of the flow the liquid particles will have the maximum velocity. Thus, the average
rate of flow is used in flow calculations. The units of flow are normally feet per
second (fps), feet per minute (fpm), meters per second (mps), and so on. Previously,
the pressures associated with fluid flow were defined as static, impact, or dynamic.
 Laminar flow of a liquid occurs when its average velocity is comparatively low and the
fluid particles tend to move smoothly in layers, as shown in Fig. 7.1a. The velocity of
the particles across the liquid takes a parabolic shape.
 Turbulent flow occurs when the flow velocity is high and the particles no longer flow
smoothly in layers and turbulence or a rolling effect occurs. Note also the flattening
of the velocity profile.
 Viscosity is a property of a gas or liquid that is a measure of its resistance to motion
or flow. A viscous liquid such as syrup has a much higher viscosity than water and
water has a higher viscosity than air. Syrup, because of its high viscosity, flows very
slowly and it is very hard to move an object through it. Viscosity (dynamic) can be
measured in poise or centipoise, whereas kinematic viscosity (without force) is
measured in stokes or centistokes. Dynamic or absolute viscosity is used in the
Reynolds and flow equations. Typically, the viscosity of a liquid decreases as
temperature increases.
CONVERSION FACTORS FOR DYNAMIC AND
KINETIC VISCOSITIES.
 The Reynolds number R is a derived relationship combining the density and viscosity
of a liquid with its velocity of flow and the cross-sectional dimensions of the flow
and takes the form
 where V = average fluid velocity
 D = diameter of the pipe
 ᵖ = density of the liquid
 m = absolute viscosity
 Flow patterns can be considered to be laminar, turbulent, or a combination of both.
Osborne Reynolds observed in 1880 that the flow pattern could be predicted from
physical properties of the liquid. If the Reynolds number for the flow in a pipe is
equal to or less than 2000 the flow will be laminar. From 2000 to about 5000 is the
intermediate region where the flow can be laminar, turbulent, or a mixture of both,
depending upon other factors. Beyond 5000 the flow is always turbulent.
 BERNOULLI EQUATION
 The Bernoulli equation is an equation for flow based on the law of conservation
of energy, which states that the total energy of a fluid or gas at any one point
in a flow is equal to the total energy at all other points in the flow.
 Energy factors. Most flow equations are based on the law of energy
conservation and relate the average fluid or gas velocity, pressure, and the
height of fluid above a given reference point. This relationship is given by the
Bernoulli equation. The equation can be modified to take into account energy
losses due to friction and increase in energy as supplied by pumps. Energy losses
in flowing fluids are caused by friction between the fluid and the containment
walls and by fluid impacting an object. In most cases these losses should be
taken into account. Whilst these equations apply to both liquids and gases, they
are more complicated in gases because of the fact that gases are compressible.
 Flow rate is the volume of fluid passing a given point in a given amount of
time and is typically measured in gallons per minute (gpm), cubic feet per
minute (cfm), liter per minute, and so on. Table 7.2 gives the flow rate
conversion factors.
Total flow is the volume of liquid flowing over a period of time and is
measured in gallons, cubic feet, liters and so forth.