APSS1A02 Introduction to Western Theories of Human Nature

Lecture Ten

Confucianism:
Some comparative perspectives
Background: Some Chinese Theories of
Human Nature
Confucianism:
‘The school of scholars’;
The ‘state religion’ of ancient China;
‘the system of ethics, education, and statesmanship
taught by Confucius and his disciples, stressing love for
humanity, ancestor worship, reverence for parents, and
harmony in thought and conduct.’
(http://dictionary.reference.com)
Buddhism
‘a religion, originated in India by Buddha (Gautama) …
holding that life is full of suffering caused by desire
and the way to end this is through enlightenment that
enables one to halt the endless sequences of births and
deaths to which one is otherwise subject.’ (ibid.)
Background: Some Chinese Theories of
Human Nature
Taoism
 Chinese ‘naturalism’;
 ‘the philosophical system evolved by Lao-tzu
and Chuang-tzu, advocating a life of complete
simplicity and naturalness and of
noninterference with the course of natural
events, in order to attain a happy existence in
harmony with the Tao’ (ibid.);
 alternatively, a Chinese religion inspired by
Taoist philosophy.
Confucius (551-479BC)
 More often called ‘Master
K’ung’ or ‘K’ung Tzu’.
 Born in the feudal state Lu, in
‘the Spring and Autumn Period’
of ancient China.
 Confucius travelled between
different feudal states descended
from the disintegrated Zhou
Dynasty, preaching to feudal
lords his political ideal, but
without success. Then he
returned to Lu, and engaged in
teaching for the rest of his life.
 Masterpiece: The Analects.
Confucius’ Metaphysics
Agnosticism:
Supernatural realities, such as the existence of spirits, are hard to
know.
Moral reality:
But there is a moral law given by Heaven that everybody can
recognize: T’ien ming, the Decree of Heaven.
Destiny:
Our lives and fortunes are all due to our destinies (ming). We have no
control over our destinies, and so we should not be sorry if money,
career, fame, or other achievement is wanting.
Free will:
It is however within our abilities to follow the Decree of Heaven. We
can perfect ourselves if we choose to follow it.
The Cultivation of the Moral Self
The virtues of the person, if well developed, makes one a
sage. Everyone has the potential to be a sage by following
the Decree of Heaven. But we can also be misled by the
actual social conditions to focus only on self-interest.
One way to know the Way of the Heaven (moral reality)
is learning from the words and deeds of the ancient sages,
who modeled their lives on Heaven.
The sages in the past spontaneously followed the Decree
of Heaven. Now the task of the Confucian scholar is to
study consciously their examples in classical texts, so as
to become ‘the gentleman’.
How the Moral Self Develops:
‘At fifteen, I set my heart on learning. At
thirty, I was firmly established. At forty, I
had no more doubts. At fifty, I knew the will
of heaven. At sixty, I was ready to listen to it.
At seventy, I could follow my heart’s desire
without transgressing what was right.’
(Analects, 2: 4)
Three Core Virtues
1. Ren: benevolence; the attitude governing good
relationship between two persons .
2. Yi: righteousness; the rightness of action.
3. Li: ritual; expression of moral ideals through the
performance of rituals and ceremonies.

 A gentleman naturally expresses the three virtues in

action and in words. There is not way to learn Ren,
Yi and Li other than looking at the examples from
the gentleman.
Substantive Social Values
Social harmony consists in:
Meritocracy
The five Confucian relationships: (1) ruler-subject, (2)
father-son, (3) brother-brother, (4) husband-wife, and
(5) friend-friend.
Rectification of names
But is human nature good? Two views from
Confucius’ followers.
Mencius (371-289BC)
Man is by nature good. Everyone
has four basic emotions which
forms the ‘sprouts’ of virtues:
Compassion  Benevolence
Shame and dislike  righteousness
Distinction between right and
wrong  wisdom
Modesty and yielding  propriety
The purpose of a good government
is to provide the conditions in
which the sprouts can develop
well.
Xunzi (310-220BC)
 Man is by nature bad. That’s why
without studying the Way of
Heaven, they would indulge in
their desires and conflict with each
other.
 The role of Li Yi (righteousness
and propriety) is to provide people
with the rules needed to change
their nature, as were formulated by
the ancient sages.
 Both virtues, rituals, and laws are
artificial devices to restrain human
desires.
How Special is Confucianism?
 Humanism:
Confucianism has a radical conception of equality, according to
which all human beings have the same ability to transcend
themselves, to be morally good, and so to contribute to a
harmonious society. And this is not grounded on the love of God.
 Social Harmony:
Confucianism insists that the social hierarchy need be protected,
and that obedience to the senior is necessary. It places more
emphasis on the collective whole than on the individual. This
gives rise to the overrating of national and family values, which
is at odds with the Western conceptions of human rights and
freedom.