1

EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
WHAT INFLUENCES OUR DEVELOPMENT?

• Nature (maturation)
• Aging Process
• Our genetic make-up

• Nurture (learning)
• Observation and interactions with our parents and teachers
and others in our environment
• Our experiences

• Many developmental changes are due to the interaction between

both nature and nurture.
OVERVIEW OF PERIODS OF THE LIFE SPAN

Period of life Approximate age range

Prenatal Period Conception to birth
Infancy & toddler hood First 2 years of life
Preschool period 2-6 years of life
Middle childhood ~6-12 or onset of puberty
Adolescence ~12-20 or reach
independence
Young adulthood 20-40 years of age
Middle age 40-65 years of age
Old age 65+ years
 EARLY CHILDHOOD PHILOSOPHIES

• Tabula rasa (blank slate)- children are:

• Neither inherently good or bad
• Their development is solely due to worldly
experiences (John Locke)
• seen as passive to societal influences
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:
A TOOL FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Exploring
Educational
Psychology

Historical Teaching: Art

Background and Science
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY…

is a branch of psychology
that specializes in
understanding
teaching and learning in
educational settings.
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

• Educational Psychology: The discipline concerned with teaching and

learning processes; applies the methods and theories of psychology and has
its own as well.
• Stephen – ―Educational Psychology is the systematic study of the
educational growth and development of a child.
• Judd – ―Educational Psychology is the Science which explains the changes
that take place in individuals as they pass through the various stages of
development.
• Peel- ―Educational Psychology is the science of Education.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF ED
PSYCH

1850 1875 1900 1925 1950

William James

John Dewey

E. L. Thorndike
WILLIAM JAMES (1842-1910)

• Emphasized the importance of observing teaching

and learning in the classroom for improving
education
• Father of American psychology
• Functionalism-mental state is identified by what
they do rather what they are made of.
 JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952)

• Viewed the child as an active learner- hands on approach- experience-

theory and practice
• Emphasized the child’s adaptation to the environment
• Progressive method of teaching
• “Education is not preparation for life; education is life itself. Education ,
therefore, is a process of living and not a preparation for future living”
John Dewey
 DEWEY SEQUENCE OF PROBLEM
SOLVING
• Define the problem
• Analyze the problem
• Determine criteria for optimal solution
• Propose solution
• Evaluate proposed solutions
• Select solutions
• Suggest strategies to implement solutions
E. L. THORNDIKE (1874-1949)

• Initiated an emphasis on assessment and

measurement
of learning
• Promoted the idea that educational
psychology must have a scientific base and
that measurement should be a central focus
• E. L. Thorndike, first educational psychology
text, 1903, founder of Journal of Educational
Psychology, 1910
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY’S
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Leta Hollingworth (1916) - First to use the

term gifted to describe students who scored
exceptionally high on IQ tests.

George Sanchez (1932) - Researcher who

demonstrated that intelligence tests were
culturally biased against minority children.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NATURE OF
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

• It is an applied branch of fundamental Psychology.

• Human behaviour in educational situations. how, when and what of education
• Concerned with factors, principles and techniques related to child‘s growth &
development.
• Concerned with process by which learning can be more efficient and effective.
• EP draws heavily from various branches of psychology, biology sociology and
anthropology .
• psychology deals all individuals in all walks of life, EP limits pupil in relation to
education.
FIVE MAJOR AREAS COVERED BY
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ARE:

• The Learner
• The Learning Process
• The Learning Situation
• The Teaching Situation
• Evaluation of Learning Performance
• The Teacher
 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY TODAY

• Viewed as a distinct discipline with its own theories, research methods, problems,
techniques
• Also applies methods and theories of psychology
• Research focused on learning and teaching
• Working to improve educational policy and practice
• Research does not always support common sense practice
• Research shows diversity of opinions among teachers about what is sensible
• Strongly held beliefs often not supported by research
• Issue: Not what sounds sensible, but what is demonstrated (by research) to be effective
 BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

 B.F. Skinner (1938)

 Psychology as the science of observable behavior and controlling conditions
 1950s programmed learning
THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION

• 1950s Bloom’s • 1980s Cognitive

Taxonomy of Cognitive Psychology memory,
Skills
thinking, reasoning –
to help student learn
TEACHING AS ART & SCIENCE

• How is teaching both art and science?

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:
A TOOL FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Effective
Teaching

Professional Commitment and

Knowledge and
Motivation
Skills
REFLECTION & OBSERVATION

Reflection:
• What were the characteristics of
the most effective teachers in
your educational experience?
 TEACHINGWORKS 19 HIGH-
LEVERAGE TEACHING PRACTICES
1. Making content (e.g., specific texts, problems, ideas, theories, processes) explicit through
explanation, modeling, representations, and examples
2. Leading a whole-class discussion
3. Eliciting and interpreting individual students’ thinking
4. Establishing norms and routines for classroom
5. Recognizing common patterns of student thinking in subject-matter
6. Implementing an instructions according to student thinking
7. Teaching a lesson or segment of instruction
8. Implementing routines, procedures, strategies to support learning
9. Setting up and managing small group work
10. Relationship-building with students
 TEACHINGWORKS 19 HIGH-LEVERAGE
TEACHING PRACTICES

11. Setting long- and short-term learning goals

12. Appraising, choosing, and modifying tasks for specific learning goal
13. Designing a sequence of lessons
14. Monitor student learning during and across lessons
15. Composing, selecting, and interpreting and using information
16. Oral and written feedback to students on their work
17. Communicating about a student with a parent or guardian
18. Analyzing instruction for the purpose of improving it
19. Communicating with other professionals
 BEGINNING TEACHERS

• Often experience reality shock

• Only partially prepared for full responsibilities of teaching
through student teaching
• Focus concerns on classroom discipline, motivating students,
accommodating differences, and more
• Ask, “How am I doing?”
• With experience, shift from focus on self to focus on students’ needs
• Ask, “How are the children doing?”
• Judge teaching success by accomplishments of students
 EFFECTIVE TEACHING
PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Effective Teachers:
 Exhibit subject matter competence
 Implement appropriate instructional strategies
 Set high goals for themselves and students and plan
for instruction
 Create developmentally appropriate instructional
materials and activities
 Manage classrooms for optimal learning

Cont…
 EFFECTIVE TEACHING
PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS

Effective Teachers:
 Use effective strategies to promote students’
motivation to learn
 Communicate well with students and parents
 Pay more than lip service to individual variations
 Work effectively with students from culturally diverse
backgrounds
 Have good assessment skills
 Integrate technology into the curriculum
 EFFECTIVE TEACHING
COMMITMENT AND MOTIVATION

Effective Teachers:
 Have a good attitude
 Care about students
 Invest time and effort
 Bring a positive attitude and enthusiasm to the classroom
Characteristics of Best Teachers
Characteristics of Worst Teachers
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:
A TOOL FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Research in
Educational
Psychology

Program
Why Research
Evaluation
Is Important
Research, Action
Research, and the
Teacher-as-
Research Researcher
Methods
 The Scientific Method

Use of the scientific method results in an

increasingly sophisticated knowledge base:
FACT

• an idea or action that can be verified

• names and dates of important activities

 The Scientific Method
Use of the scientific method results in an
increasingly sophisticated knowledge base:

CONCEPT
• rules that allow for categorization of events, places,
people, ideas, etc.
• a DESK is a piece of FURNITURE designed with a flat
top for writing; a CHAIR is a piece of FURNITURE
designed for sitting; a CHAIR with a flat surface attached
to it that is designed for writing is also called a DESK
 The Scientific Method
Use of the scientific method results in an
increasingly sophisticated knowledge base:

PRINCIPLE

• relationship(s) between/among facts

and/or concepts
 The Scientific Method
Use of the scientific method results in an
increasingly sophisticated knowledge base:

HYPOTHESIS
• educated guess about relationships (principles)
• for lower-division, undergraduate students
study habits is a better predictor of success in a
college course than is a measure of intelligence
or reading comprehension
 The Scientific Method
Use of the scientific method results in an
increasingly sophisticated knowledge base:
THEORY
• Set of facts, concepts, and principles
that allow description and EXPLANATION
• Piaget's theory of cognitive development,
Erikson's theory of socioemotional development,
Skinner's theory of operant conditioning
 The Scientific Method
Use of the scientific method results in an
increasingly sophisticated knowledge base:

LAW
• firmly established, thoroughly tested,
principle or theory
• a fixed interval schedule for delivering
reinforcement produces a scalloping effect on
behavior
RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Research Is Important
• Based on the scientific method, researchers
• Conceptualize the problem
• Collect data
• Draw conclusions
• Revise research conclusions
and theory
• Theory
• Hypothesis
THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
APPROACH

The scientific research STEP 4

approach is objective, Revise Research
systematic, and testable. Conclusions & Theory
STEP 3
Draw Conclusions

STEP 2
Collect Information

STEP 1
Conceptualize the Problem
METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY

• Introspection
 INTROSPECTION METHOD

• Introspection is a method of self-observation.

• The word ‗Introspection is made up of two Latin words. ―Intro‖ meaning within and
―Spection meaning looking.

• There are three clear stages in introspection.

• 1. During the observation of external object, the person beings to ponder
over his own mental state.
• 2. The person begins to question the working of his own mind.
• 3. He tries to frame the laws and conditions of mental processes: He
thinks in terms of improvement of his reasoning or the control of his
emotional stages.
 INTROSPECTION

Advantages Disadvantages
•Cheapest method . •State of one‘s mental processes is
•No need any apparatus or laboratory . continuously changing

•Can be used any time. •Data cannot be verified, lacks validity

and reliability
•First-hand data
•Subjective
•It is the only method with the help of
•Cant be applied to children and
which an individual can know his
emotions and feelings. animals
•Same person experiments and observes
 OBSERVATION METHOD

Observation literally means looking outside oneself. Facts are

collected by observing The overt behaviour is the manifestation
of covert conditions within the individual of the individual. The
overt behaviour is the manifestation of covert conditions within
the individual. perceiving the behaviour as it is
Observations
Laboratory
Naturalistic observation
Participant observation
Cont…
 OBSERVATIONAL METHODS:
• Naturalistic observation:
• Observing people in their every-day surroundings
• Pros
• Could be easily used with infants and toddlers
• Yields information on how people actually behave in their common
surroundings
• Cons
• Some behaviors occur so infrequently or are so inappropriate that they will less
likely be witnessed by an observer
• Too many events might be occurring at the same time
• Observer influence
• Participants react to an observer’s presence by behaving in unusual ways
 OBSERVATIONAL METHODS CONT’D:

• Time sampling
• Procedure where the investigators records the frequency with which
individuals display particular behaviors during the brief time interval
that each participant is observed
• Structured observation:
• The behavior of interest is cued and observed in the laboratory
• Pros
• Good for observing behaviors that occur infrequently or are inappropriate
• Standardization
• Cons
• Participants may not act similarly in a lab when compared to their every-day
setting
 SELF –REPORT METHODS

• Interviews & Questionnaires:

• Structured interview/questionnaire-
• Treats each participant equally for comparison purposes
• Cons
• Can’t be used with very young children
• Participants my lie
• Pros
• Generates large amount of data in short time frame
 RESEARCH METHODS

Descriptive Research
Case studies
Ethnographic Studies
Focus Groups
Personal Journals and Diaries
 CASE STUDIES:

• The investigator gathers extensive information on

one participant and tests developmental hypotheses
by analyzing the events of the person’s life history.
• Exp. Baby biographies
• Cons
• Difficult to compare cases because data is
not structured
• Lack of external validity
 ETHNOGRAPHY:

• The investigator tries to understand the values, traditions,

and social process of a culture or subculture by living
with its members.
• Pros
• Yields rich information on a specific culture
• Gives information on the developmental challenges of different
minority groups
• Cons
• Very subjective
• Lacks generalizability
 PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS:

• Method that explores the relationship between physiological

processes and aspects of children’s physical, cognitive, social, or
emotional responses and development.
• Examples of psycho physilogical processes:
• Heart rate
• Brain wave activity
• Pros
• Useful for assessing biological underpinnings of development
• Useful for communicating the emotions of infants
• Cons
• Cannot communicate with assurance what participants feel
• The effects on physiological responses could be due to other variables
POSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS OF
CORRELATIONAL DATA
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Independent variable:
The manipulated, influential experimental factor.

Dependent variable:
The factor that is measured in an experiment.

Control group:
A comparison group, no manipulation.

Experimental group:
The group whose experience is manipulated.

Random assignment:
Participants are assigned by chance.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A study of the effects of time management on
students’ grades
 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

• 1. most systematic method or getting reliable data.

• 2. Experimental method enables accurate observations due to controlled conditions.
• 3. It allows us to establish cause effect relationship between different phenomena.
• 4. The results obtained are valid and reliable.
• 5. The findings of the experimental method are verifiable by other experiments under identical conditions.
• 6. It helps to protect from the subjective opinions. Hence it provides objective information about the problem.
• 7. It provides adequate information about the problem.
• 8. In experimental method, experiments are conducted under vigorously controlled conditions. The
experimenter can control the application and withdrawal of independent variables.
• 9. Experimental method increases ones knowledge or psychological facts in child psychology, social and
abnormal psychology. It is rightly said the experimental method has made psychology a science.
USING RESEARCH: EXPERIMENTAL
STUDIES
• Experimental studies look at cause and effect
• Variables are manipulated and effects recorded
• Participants (subjects): People being studied
• Random: Subjects randomly grouped for study
• Quasi-experimental studies: Using naturally existing groupings such as classes or schools as the
subjects

• An aspect of situation is changed for one group, not others

• Compare results of each group
• Statistically significant differences: Not likely to occur by chance (indicating cause/effect
relationship)

• Correlations do NOT show causation

• Single-subject design: Determine effects of a therapy, teaching method, other
intervention
 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:

• Permit a precise assessment of the cause-and-effect relationship that

may exist between two variables
• This design in employs:
• Manipulation of the independent variable
• Experimental control
• Random assignment
• Pros
• Determines causation
• Cons
• May lack generalizability
 RESEARCH METHODS

Correlational Research Experimental Research

• Measures the strength • Random assignment
of a relation between • Experimental vs. control
groups
two variables
• Independent vs. dependent
• Does NOT establish causal variables
relation
 THE ROLE OF TIME IN
RESEARCH
• Longitudinal studies: Happen over months or years
• Example: Study of cognitive development
• Involves keeping up with subjects for years

• Cross-sectional: Study groups of students at different ages

• Example: Study how conceptions of numbers changes from age 3 to age 16
• Interview children of different ages

• Microgenetic studies: Observation/analysis of changes in a cognitive process as

it unfolds (days or weeks)
• Observe period of the change
• Make many observations
• Put observed behavior “under a microscope”
 DESIGNS FOR STUDYING
DEVELOPMENT
• Cross-Sectional Design- subjects from different cohorts are
studied at the same point in time
• strengths
• demonstrates age differences
• taps a bit into developmental trends
• practical in regards to cost and time
• limitations
• cohort effects
• Does not provide information development
 •LONGITUDINAL DESIGN
• Observes people of one cohort repeatedly over a period
of a couple of months to a lifetime
• Strengths
• provides information on development
• can reveal links between early experiences and latter outcomes
• shows similarities and differences in individual development
• limitations
• practice effects
• may be time consuming and expensive,
• selective attrition
• cross-generalization
• nonrepresentative sample
 TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH

Cross-sectional Longitudinal
• Studying groups of people at • Studying the same
one time individuals over time
• Researcher doesn’t have to • Evaluates how children
wait until subjects grow older change over time
• Provides no information about • Time consuming and costly
the stability of data over time
 • THE CLINICAL METHOD:

• An interview where a participant’s response to each successive question

determines what the examiner will ask next
• Cons
• Makes it difficult to compare participants to each other
• allows for examiner subjectivity
• Pros
• Yields large amounts of information in a short period of time
• Yields rich and more specific information
 QUASI EXPERIMENT:

• Gathers information on individuals who experience a natural

manipulation of their environment
• Pros
• Permits the study of the impact of natural events or other difficult
experiences
• Provides strong cause-and-effects clues
• Cons
• Lacks experimental control due to ethical reasons
PROGRAM EVALUATION, ACTION
RESEARCH, AND TEACHER-AS-
RESEARCHER

Program Evaluation: Designed to make

decisions about a particular program.
Action Research: Used to solve a
particular classroom or
school problem.
Teacher-As-Researcher: Teachers
conduct their own studies to
improve their teaching.
 QUANTITATIVE VERSUS
•
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative: Use words, dialogue, events, images as data
• Goal: Explore specific situations/people in depth; understand meaning of events to
people involved
• Interpret subjective or socially constructed meanings (as in case studies,
ethnographies)
• Assume no process of understanding meaning can be completely objective
• Quantitative: Take measurements; make calculations
• Use numbers/statistics to assess relationships among variables or differences
between groups
• Try to be as objective as possible (as in correlational and experimental studies)
• Generalizable results (apply to similar situations/people)
 SUPPORTING STUDENT
LEARNING
Factors that support K-12 student achievement
•Student personal factors
• Student engagement: Engaging their behavior, minds, motivations, emotions
• Learning strategies: Teaching cognitive, metacognitive, behavioral strategies
•School and social-contextual factors
• School climate: Academic emphasis, positive teacher qualities, school with
positive climate
• Social-familial influences: Parental involvement, positive peer influences
Educational psychology addresses these supporting factors
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH

• Informed consent
• Benefits-to-risk ratio
• Confidentiality
• Protection from harm