Teaching and learning

Group members:
o Iqra Khalid
o Sadaf Yousaf
o Hafiza Mubashra Ashraf
o Anila Shehzad
o Zoya Arif
Unit 4: Learning Theories and
characteristics of Adult Learners
1. Characteristics of Adult Learners
2. Factors that influence learning
3. Cognitive and affective aspects
4. Learning Theories
a. Behaviorist Learning theory
b. Social Learning Theory
c. Psychodynamic Learning Theory
d. Humanistic Learning Theory
e. Cognitive Learning Theory
CHARACTERISTICS
OF
ADULT LEARNERS :
Following are the characteristics of adult learners on the basis of:
1. Self and self direction
2. Life and past experiences
3. Goal oriented
4. Respect
5. Practical
SELF AND SELF DIRECTED:
Adults feel the need to take responsibility for their lives and decisions and this is why its important for them to have
control over their learning. Therefore self assessment, a peer relationship with instructors, multiple options and initial,
yet subtle support are all imperative.
Adults learners prefer to be free to direct themselves actively involve them in learning process and serve as a facilitator
for them.
LIFE AND PAST EXPERIENCES :
Learners need to connect learning to their knowledge and experiences base (family
relationships, professional life and previous academic experience).
Adults have tendency to link their past experiences to anything new and validate new concepts
based on prior learning. This is why it is crucial to form a class with adults to have a similar life
experiences levels, encourage discussions and sharing and generally create a learning
community consisting of people who can profoundly interact.
GOAL ORIENTED :
Learners usually know what goal they want to attain good organization and clearly defined
elements are much appreciated.
PRACTICAL:
Learners may not be interested in knowledge for its own sake. Let them know explicitly how the
lesson will be useful to them on job.
RESPECT:
Acknowledge the wealth of experience that learners bring to the classroom learners should be
treated as equals in experience and knowledge.
Factors effecting learning:
Behaviorist Learning Theory:
 Main Concept is that all behavior is caused by Corresponding external stimulus.
Ivan Pavlov and his Classical Conditioning:

 Classical Conditioning occurs when a naturally

occurring stimulus is associated with another
environmental stimulus.
 In this case the response to the naturally
occurring stimulus is carried over to the
associated stimulus.
The best example for this is Pavlov’s experiment
with dogs.
Skinner and his Operant Conditioning:
“According to this theory the behavior is not dependent on the preceding stimulus. Rather it is
dependent on the consequences to the response to the stimulus.”
Skinner introduced the term Reinforcement to refer to consequences that would either strengthen
or weaken a certain behavior.
He gave four kinds of Consequences:
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction.
 Cognitive Learning Theory:
Basis: Principle of cognitive Psychology
Focus: Role of Cognitive processes in learning.
The mental process involved in learning: Observing, categorizing, forming generalizations to
make sense of the information provided.
Jean Piaget:
Constructed models of child development and the learning process
Bruner’s mode of thinking:
David Ausubel:
Stressed the importance of active mental participation in meaningful learning tasks
Learning must be meaningful to be effective and permanent.
Made a distinction between meaningful learning and rote learning.
Meaningful learning:
Relatable to what one already knows so it can be easily integrated in one’s existing cognitive
structure.
Rote learning:
The material to be learnt is not integrated into an existing cognitive structure but learnt as
isolated pieces of information.
Bloom learning domains
Social learning theory:
It States that people learn from one another via observing, limitation and modeling.
Albert Bandura ‘s theory added a social element arguing that people can learn new information
and behaviour by watching other people which is known as observational theory or modelling.
BANDURA believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all type of learning.
This learning theory emphasizes importance of observing and modelling the behaviour,
attitude and emotional reactions of other.
General Principles:
1. People can learn by observing the behavior of other and the outcome of those behavior.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior
3. Cognition have a role in learning.
4. Social learning theory can be considered as a bridge between Behaviorist and cognitions
theory.
Basic Social learning concept
1. Observational learning:
 a live model
A verbal instructional learning
A symbolic model
2. Intrinsic Reinforcement
3. The modeling process:
Attention
retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
Three forms of Reinforcement:
1. Direct Reinforcement:
Occurs when an individual watches a model perform, limits that behavior and is reinforced by
some individual.
2. Vicarious Reinforcement:
The observer anticipates receiving a reward for behaving in a given way because someone else
has been so rewarded.
3. Self-Reinforcement:
The individual strives to meet personal standards and does not depend on or care about the
reaction of others.
Application:
1. Carefully select audio visual that are to be used in the classroom
2. Giving teamwork
3. Setting goals
4. Incorporate technology with learning
Psychodynamic Theory:
Psychodynamic Theories comprise of three theories:
1. Psychosexual theory/Psychoanalytical theory by Sigmund Freud (1905).
2. Psychosocial Theory/Model of personality development by Erik Erikson (1963).
3. Cognitive theory by Jean Piaget (1952)
Psychoanalytical theory:
Sigmund Freud was the originator of the psychoanalytical approach.
He attempted to explain by understanding the mind at its different levels, its motivation and
conflicts.
He described human mind with the help of two models:
1. Topographic model.
2. Psychic model/psychic triad.
Topographic model:
According to this model, human mind consists of conscious, preconscious and subconscious
mind.
Conscious mind: Where we are paying attention at the moment. Includes only our current
thinking processes.
Preconscious mind: Involves ordinary memory and knowledge. Things of which we are aware,
but where we are not paying attention at all moments.
Subconscious/Unconscious mind: Where process and content are out of direct reach of the
conscious mind. That part of our mind which thinks and acts independently.
Freud described human mind is like an iceberg. Only 10% is visible (conscious) and other 90% is
beneath (unconscious).
Psychic Model:
Id: Basic structure of personality. • Serves as a reservoir of instincts. • Present at birth, impulse
ridden. • Strives for immediate pleasure (pleasure principle).
Ego: • Develops out of Id in 2nd to 6th month of life when infant begins to distinguish between
itself and outside world. • Governed by reality principle. • Concerned with memory and
judgment. • Developed after birth, expands with age. • Delays, modifies and controls Id
impulses on a realistic level (reality principle).
Super Ego: Prohibition learned from environment (more from parents and authorities). • Acts
as a sensor of acceptability of thoughts, feelings and behavior. • Determined by regulations
imposed upon child by parents, society and culture (ethics and morals). • Internalized control
which produces the feeling of shame and guilt.
In a healthy person, Ego is the strongest.
• Satisfies needs of Id.
• Does not upset Super Ego.
• Takes into consideration the reality of every situation.
Things to learn here;
Ego Defense Mechanism
Stages of development by Sigmund Freud
Psychosocial theory by Erick Erickson
Humanistic Theory:
It includes:
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
Humanism:
is a psychological approach that emphasizes the study of the whole person, and the uniqueness
of each individual.
EXISTENTIALISM
Emphasized the quest for personal meaning and determining personal values.
Basic Principle:
1. Someone’s present functioning is their most significant aspect.
2. To be mentally healthy, individuals must take personal responsibility for their actions.
3. Each person, simply by being, is inherently worthy.
4. The ultimate goal of living is to attain personal growth and understanding.
Humanistic Theory:
Carl Roger:
The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept
includes three components:
1. Self worth (or self-esteem) 2.
Self-image 3.
Ideal self .
Self worth (or self-esteem) – • what we think about ourselves. • Rogers believed feelings of self-worth
developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.
Self-image: • How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. • Self-image includes
the influence of our body image on inner personality. • At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a
good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. • Self-image has an effect on how a person thinks, feels and behaves in
the world.
Ideal self: • This is the person who we would like to be. • It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is
dynamic – i.e. forever changing. • The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties
etc.
Carl Rogers: Person Centered Therapy

Self or self-concept refers to how we see our describe ourselves

Positive: tend to act, feel, think optimistically and Constructively
Negative: tend to act, feel & pessimistically and destructively
Two kind of of selves:
Ideal Self:
Based in our hopes and wishes, how we would like to see ourselves.
Real Self:
Based on actual experiences, how we really see ourselves