Transmission Lines

EM-THEORY
REFERENCES:
1. M.N.O. Sadiku: Elements of Electromagnetics, Second Edition,
Oxford University Press, 1995.
2. P.Lorrain & D. Corson: Electromagnetic Fields and Waves,
Second Edition, W.H. Freeman & Co, New York, 1970.
Lecturer: Dr. Thomas Afullo,

School of Electrical, Electronic & Computer Engineering,
University of Kwazulu-Natal,
Durban, South Africa.
Tel: +27-31-260 2713; E-mail: afullot@ukzn.ac.za
Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 1

Smith Chart
TRANSMISSION LINES & IMPEDANCE MATCHING
• TRANSMISSION LINES EQUATIONS
• The standard transmission line equations are:
dV
   R  j L  I
dz
dI
  G  jC V
dz
• From these we can derive two second-order differential equations:

d 2V
  2
V
dz 2
d 2I
2
  2I
dz
• The general solutions for current, I, and voltage, V, at a distance z from the
source are:  z  z
V ( z )  V1e  V2 e
I ( z )  I1e z  I 2 e  z

Smith Chart
• TRANSMISSION LINES PARAMETERS
• V1,I1 and V2,I2, refer, respectively, to amplitudes of the incident and reflected
voltages and currents. We define
  R  jL  G  jC     j
• where R is the line resistance in Ohms/m, L the inductance in henries/m, C the

capacitance in farads/m, and G the conductance in siemens/m. Since:
dV
dz

 V1e z  V2 ez  ( R  jL) I  ( R  jL) I1e z  I 2ez 
• We determine that: 
I ( z)  
1 dV

( R  jL) dz ( R  jL)

V1e z  V2 ez 
I ( z) 
1
Zo

V1e z  V2 ez 
• Where the characteristic impedance, Zo, is defined as:
R  jL
Zo 
G  jC

Smith Chart
• TRANSMISSION LINES PARAMETERS – LOSSLESS LINE
• For the lossless line, R=G=0. Then the line parameters become:
  j LC    j
 0
   LC
Zo  j L j C  L C
• DISTORTIONLESS LINE
• If a signal received in a transmission line is an exact replica of the transmitted
signal, then we have a distortionless line.
• For a line to be distortionless, each of Zo  and phase velocity must be
independent of frequency. Zo is independent of frequency if:
jL jC L C L R
    Zo  
R G R G C G

Smith Chart
• DISTORTIONLESS LINE
• For no attenuation distortion:
 2   R  jL  G  jC   RG  j  CR  LG    2 LC
 2   RG  j LC      j  2  CR  LG
2
  RG
   LC
• Therefore in order to have a line with no attenuation distortion, the same
conditions that apply to the characteristic impedance apply to the propagation
constant; that is, CR=LG.
• PHASE DISTORTION
• In order to have no phase distortion, the phase velocity has to be independent
of frequency. This is satisfied since, in both the above cases:
  1
vp   
  LC LC

Smith Chart
• LOW-LOSS TRANSMISSION LINE
• Most practical lines are constructed such that at microwave frequencies,
R«L, and G«C. Then:
  RG  j  CR  LG    2 LC  j  CR  LG    2 LC
1/ 2
    G
  2 LC 1  j 



R 
  j LC 
1 R G
LC   
  C L  2 L C
1 R G 1 C L
 LC      R G
2  L C 2 L C 
   LC
 R 
1 
L j 2L  L
Zo   
C 1  G  C
 j 2C 

Smith Chart
• As already noted, the general solutions for current, I, and voltage, V, at a distance z
from the source are:
V ( z )  V1e z  V2 e  z
I ( z )  I1e z  I 2 e  z
• Also, we determined that the current is given by:
1 dV 
I( z )     V1ez  V2ez 
(R  jL) dz (R  jL)
1
I(z)   V1e  z  V2e z   I(z) Zo  V1e  z  V2e z
Zo
1
I( z ) z  0   V1  V2  ; V(z) z0   V1  V2 
Zo
• Consider a transmission line of length l, characterized by propagation constant  and
characteristic impedance Zo, terminated in a load of impedance ZL.
• Let the line be fed by a generator of input impedance Zg, and with open-circuit
voltage Vg.
• Let the transmission line extend from z=0 at the generator to z=l at the load.

Smith Chart
Zg IL
Io
Vo Zin ZL
Vg (, Zo) VL
z=0 z=l
• To determine V1 and V2 from the equations, the terminal conditions

must be given (at z=0, l).V For
 V example,
; I  atI the input side, let:
o z0 o z0
• Substituting these terminal values

1 into the results above at z=0, we
have: V 1  V o  I o Z o ;
2
1
V2  V o  I o Z o ;
2

Smith Chart
• If the input impedance at the input terminals is Zin, the input voltage
Vo and the input current Io are easily obtained from the figure as:
 Z in   Vg 
V o    V g ; I o   
 Z in  Z g   Z in  Z g 
• On the other hand, if we are given conditions at the load, say,
V L  V zl; I L  I zl
• Substituting these into equations1 for V(z) and I(z), we get:

V 1  V L  I L Z o  e l ;
2
1
V2  V L  I L Z o  e  l ;
2
• Next, we determine the input impedance, Zin; at the generator, for

example, 1 1  l 
 V L  I L Z e V L  I L Z e
l
 
V ( z ) Z o V 1  V  2 o
2
o
  Z  Z o ta n h l 
Z   2
 Zo  Zo L 
in
I(z) V1 V2 1 1  Z o  Z l ta n h l 
V L  I L Z o e
l
 V L  I L Z o  e  l
2 2

Smith Chart
• TERMINATED TRANSMISSION LINES
• Let the load termination at the end of a transmission line be ZL. Then the
general expression for the input impedance, Zin, at a distance l from the load is:
Z L  Z o tanh l
Z in  Z o
Z o  Z L tanh l
• For a lossless line, =j; and the input impedance becomes:

Z L  jZ o tan  l
For lossless line,   j  Z in  Z o
Z o  jZ L tan  l
• For an open-circuited line, the input impedance is:

Zo
Z in  Z oc    jZ o cot l
j tan l
• For a short-circuited line, ZL=0; the input impedance is:

Z in  Z sc  jZ o tan l
• Then the characteristic impedance can be determined as:
Z o  Z oc Z sc
Smith Chart
• TERMINATED TRANSMISSION LINES – REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
• The incident and reflected voltages on a line of length l are given by:
Vin  V1e l
Vref  V2 el
• Then the reflection coefficient, a distance l from the receiving end, is given by:
V2e  l V2 2 l  VL  I L Zo  / 2 2 l  I L ZL  I L Zo  / 2 2 l 1  Zo / ZL   2 l
 ( l)   e  e  e  e
V1e l V1  VL  IL Zo  / 2  I L Z L  I L Zo  / 2 1  Z o / Z L 
• At the load, l=0; the reflection coefficient becomes:
V2 1  Zo ZL ZL  Zo
l0  o   
V1 1  Zo ZL ZL  Zo
• Since ZL and Zo are in general complex, so is o; then:

o  o e j
(l )  o e  j 2l  o e j (  2 l ) e  2l

Smith Chart
TERMINATED TRANSMISSION LINES – REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
Consider the above transmission line, of length l, with characteristic

impedance Zo, terminated in a load impedance Zl at terminal B.
For an incident wave of voltage V1 travelling from terminal A towards B,
the incident voltage at B is given by V1e-l, where  is the line’s
propagation constant.

Smith Chart
TERMINATED TRANSMISSION LINES – REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
If there was no termination at B, then the incident wave at terminal C, a
further length l from B, or 2l from A, would be given by V1e-2l.
At B, a portion of the incident wave will be reflected, resulting in a
reflected wave V2. This wave will be travelling backwards towards the
source terminal A, where the reflected wave becomes V2e-l, having
travelled a distance l from B to A.
If we assume a reflection coefficient L at the load, then V2= LV1e-l, so
that at terminal A, the reflected wave becomes V2e-l =LV1e-2l; hence
the ratio of the reflected to incident wave at terminal A becomesLe-2l.
At the load, the reflection coefficient is simply L, which is given by:
Z L  Z0
L  o 
Z L  Z0

Smith Chart
• TERMINATED TRANSMISSION LINES – STANDING WAVE RATIO
• The line voltage at a distance l from the receiving end (z=-l) is given by:

V( z  l )  V1el  V2 e l  V1el 1  o e j e  2l e  j 2 l 
• For a lossless line, =j, =0, and Zo is real. Then:
 
Vz   l  V1e jl 1  o e  j ( 2 l  )  V1e jl 1  o cos 2 l     j o sin  2 l    
• The magnitude of this voltage along the line is:


Vz   l  V1 1  o cos 2 l      o sin 2  2 l   
2 2

1/ 2

 V1 1  2 o  cos 2 l      o cos 2  2 l     o sin 2  2 l   
2 2

1/ 2
 V 1   
1/ 2
 2 o  cos 2 l    
2
1 o
• Similarly, the magnitude of current a distance –l from the load is:

I z  l 
V1
Zo

1  o  2 o  cos 2 l    
2 1/ 2

Smith Chart
• TERMINATED TRANSMISSION LINES – STANDING WAVE RATIO
• The voltage maximum occurs when:
cos(2 l   )  1  2 l    2n  l   / 2  n
• And voltage minima occur when:
cos(2 l   )  1  2 l    (2n  1)  ( l   / 2)  n   / 2
• The corresponding values of voltage maxima and minima are:
V l max
 V1 1  o 
V l min
 V1 1  o 
• And we define the voltage standing wave ratio, VSWR, as:
1  0
VSWR 
1  0
• To determine the separation between adjacent minima, let =0; and let the first
minimum occur at l1 when n=0, and the next one at l2 when n=1; then:
n   / 2 n   / 2  2n  1 
l  n   / 2  l   
 2 /  4
l1( n  0 )   4; l2 ( n 1)  3 4;  l2  l1   / 2
Smith Chart
• IMPEDANCE AT VOLTAGE MAXIMA AND MINIMA
• A voltage maximum occurs at a current minimum, and vice-versa. At a
voltage minimum, the impedance is given by the ratio of V/I:
Vv min V1 1  o  Zo Z 1
Z in (Vmin )     in 
I v min V1 / Z o 1  o  VSWR Z o VSWR
• At a voltage maximum, the impedance is given by:
Vv max V1 1  o  Z
Z in (Vmax )    Z oVSWR  in  VSWR
I v max V1 / Z o 1  o  Zo
• POWER DELIVERED TO THE LOAD – MATCHED LINE

• For a matched line, there is no reflection of power from the load. The power
delivered to the load is:
1
2
 *

PL  Re V1 I1 
1 V12
2 Zo

Smith Chart
• POWER DELIVERED TO THE LOAD – MISMATCHED LOSSLESS
LINE
• In the case of a lossless line terminated in a load Z L, the power delivered to the
load is:
1
PL 
2
  1
Re VL I *L  Re V1  V2  ( I1  I 2 ) *
2
1 
 Re V1 1  L 
2 
V1
Zo
 1 V12
1  L  * 
2 Z
1  L
2

 o
• POWER DELIVERED TO THE LOAD – MISMATCHED LOSSY LINE

• Power flowing towards the load at any point z=-l on a lossy line is given by:
1   2l V1  e  2l V12
P( z  l )  Re e V1 1  L  1  L  * 
2  Zo 2 Zo

1  L
2



Smith Chart
• THE SMITH CHART
• Many of the computations required to solve transmission line problems
involve the use of rather complicated equations. To simplify their solutions, a
graphic method of arriving at a quick answer is necessary. The most popular
graphic chart is that developed by Phillip Smith in 1939. This is the Smith
Chart.
• DERIVATION OF THE SMITH CHART
• Consider the reflection coefficient at the load for a transmission line:
Z L  Zo
L   L e j  r  ji
Z L  Zo
• Since the magnitude of L<1, the envelope of L must lie within or on the
unity circle. The reflection coefficient a distance d from the load is:
d  L e 2d e  j 2 d  L e 2d e j (  2 d )
• The normalized impedance is given by:
Z 1  L e 2d
z 
Z o 1  L e  2d

Smith Chart
• At d=0, we obtain:
Z 1  L Z L
z    r  jx
Z o 1  L Z o
• Since
L  r  ji
• We have:
1  r  ji  (1  r  ji 1  r  ji 

r  jx  
1  r  ji 1  r  2  i2
• Then
1  r2  i2
r
1  r  2  i2
2i
x
1  r  2  i2

Smith Chart
• Letting u=r and v=i, we have:
1  u 2  v2
r  r  1  u  2
 rv 2
 1  u 2
 v 2
1  u  2  v 2
ur 1 r
 r  1 v 2   r  1 u 2  2ur  1  r  v 2  u 2  2 
 r  1  r  1
• Completing the squares on left-hand side, we get constant resistance curves:
2 2 2 2 2 2
2  r  1 r  r  2  r   1   r   1 
v  u       v  u       r    i2   
  r  1  1  r  r  1    r  1   r  1    r  1   r  1
• Similarly for the x equation we have:
2v 2 2 v
x  u  2u  v  2  1
1  u   v
2 2
x
• Completing the squares on left-hand side, we get constant reactance curves:

2 2 2 2
 1 1  1 1
(u  1)   v       (r  1) 2   i     
2
 x  x  x  x

Smith Chart
• The constant resistance and constant reactance circles are shown below:
r=0 i i
x=1
r=0.4 x=2
r= x=0.5
+jx x=±
r=1
r
r
r=3
-jx
x=-0.5
x=-2
x=-1
Constant Resistance Circles Constant Reactance Circles

Smith Chart
• CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SMITH CHART
• 1. The constant r and constant x loci form two families of orthogonal circles
on the Smith chart.
• The constant r and constant x circles all pass through the point (r=1, i=0).
• The upper half of the Smith Chart represents +jx, and the lower half –jx.
• For use as an admittance chart, the constant r circles become constant
conductance (g) circles, and the constant x circles become constant
susceptance (b) circles, since y=g+jb.
• The distance around the Smith chart once is /2.
• At a minimum point, normalized input impedance is 1/VSWR.
• At a maximum point, normalized input impedance = VSWR.
• The normalized impedance or admittance is repeated every half-wavelength.
• Since the normalized admittance is the reciprocal of the normalized
impedance,for a given normalized impedance, the corresponding admittance
values are 180 degrees out of phase in the Smith chart.
• The distances in the Smith chart are given in wavelengths towards the
generator or towards the load.

Smith Chart
• IMPEDANCE MATCHING USING THE (SHORTED) SINGLE STUB
• 1. From the normalized load impedance, z1, mark the corresponding load
admittance, y1=1/z1, on the Smith chart, as point A.
• 2. Draw the VSWR circle for the above load.
• 3. Moving towards the generator along the VSWR circle from y1 (point
A), identify the first point B at which the real part is 1. The distance in
wavelengths from the load to B determines the position of the stub.
• 4. At point B, the real part is 1, but the imaginary part is jb. Therefore
the normalized susceptance of the stub should be –jb. Mark this
susceptance (-jb) as point C in the Smith Chart.
• 5. To determine the length, l, of the matching stub, starting at the short
circuit end of the stub (admittance =, at the right-edge of the Smith
Chart, point P), then move towards the generator until the position of
point C is reached. The distance traveled from P to C determines the
stub length.

Smith Chart
• QUARTER-WAVE TRANSFORMER MATCHING
• The quarter-wave transformer makes use of the impedance transformation
properties of a quarter-wave line. When a line of characteristic impedance Z o
is to be matched to a load of impedance ZL, the characteristic impedance of the
matching quarter-wave section is:
Zc  Zo Z L
• However, a quarter-wave transformer provides a perfect impedance match
only at the frequency at which it is /4 long. It is therefore narrowband. While
this is adequate in a number of narrow-band microwave systems, in cases of
broadband operation, the use of several quarter-wave sections connected in
cascade is required. This results in a wide-band multi-section transformer.
Zn
Z1
Zo n ZL
1 2
1 2 i n
Multi-section quarter-wave transformer
Smith Chart
TRANSMISSION LINES & IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
• TRANSIENTS ON TRANSMISSION LINES
• In the discussions so far, we have assumed that a transmission line
operates at a single frequency.
• However, in some practical applications such as in computer
networks, pulsed signals may be sent through the line.
• From Fourier analysis, a pulse may be regarded as a superposition of
waves of many frequencies.
• Thus sending a pulsed signal on the line may be regarded as the same
as simultaneously sending waves of different frequencies.
• As in circuit analysis, when a pulse generator or a battery connected to
a transmission line is switched on, it takes some time for the current
and voltage on the line to reach steady values.
• The transitional period is called the transient.
• For convenience, we treat the transient behaviour, not in the frequency
domain using Laplace transform, but in the time domain.

Smith Chart
MATCHING
• Consider a lossless line of length l and characteristic impedance Zo as
shown in the figure below.
Zg
ZL
Zo
Vg
z=0 z=l
• Suppose the line is driven by a pulse generator of voltage Vg with internal
impedance Zg at z=0, and terminated with a purely resistive load ZL.

Smith Chart
MATCHING
• At the instant t=0, the generator is switched on; the starting current only sees
Zg and Zo, and so the initial current and voltage are given by:
 Vg
I (0,0 )  I o  ;
Z g  Zo
 Z oVg
V (0,0 )  Vo  I o Z o  ;
Z g  Zo
• After the switch is closed, waves I1=Io and V1=Vo propagate toward the load at
speed given by the phase velocity:
1
u
LC
Smith Chart
MATCHING
• Since this speed is finite, it takes some time for the positively traveling
wave to reach the load and interact with it.
• The presence of the load has no effect on the waves before the transit time
given by:
l
t1 
u
• After t1 seconds, the waves reach the load. The voltage (or current) at the
load is the sum of the incident and reflected voltages (or currents). Thus:
V (l , t1 )  V1  V2  Vo  LVo  1  L Vo
I (l , t1 )  I1  I 2  I o  L I o  1  L  I o

Smith Chart
MATCHING
• Here, L is the load reflection coefficient. That is:
Z L  Zo
L 
Z L  Zo
• The reflected waves V2 and I2 travel back toward the generator in addition to the
waves Vo and Io already on the line. At time 2t1, the reflected waves have
reached the generator, so:
V (0,2t1 )  V1  V2  G LVo  (1  L )Vo  (1  L  G L )Vo

I (0,2t1 )  I1  I 2  G (L I o )  (1  L ) I o  (1  L  G L ) I o
ZG  Zo
G 
ZG  Z o

Smith Chart
MATCHING
• Again the reflected waves (from the generator end) V1=GLVo and
I1=GLIo propagate toward the load and the process continues until
the energy of the pulse is absorbed by the resistors Zg and ZL.
• Instead of tracing the voltage and current waveforms back and forth, it
is easier to keep track of the reflections using a bounce diagram, or a
lattice diagram.
• The bounce diagram consists of a zigzag line indicating the position of
the voltage (or current) wave with respect to the generator end. On the
bounce diagram, the voltage (or current) at any time may be
determined by adding those values that appear on the diagram above
that time.

Smith Chart
MATCHING
• The bounce diagram for the above situation is shown below.
L
L G z=l
G z=l z=0
z=0 t=0
t=0 Vo Io
t1
t1 LIo
LVo
2t1
2t1
GLVo GLIo
3t1 3t1
GLVo GLIo
4t1 4t1
GLVo GLIo
Bounce Diagram – voltage wave Bounce Diagram – current wave

Smith Chart
MATCHING
• TRANSIENTS ON TRANSMISSION LINES – EXAMPLE
• For the transmission line below, calculate and sketch:
• 1. The voltage at the load and generator ends for 0<t<6 sec
• 2. The current at the load and generator ends for 0<t<6 sec
Zg=100 
Zo=50 ZL=200
Vg
vp=108 m/s
=12V
z=0 z=100 m

Smith Chart
MATCHING
• A) We first calculate the voltage reflection coefficients at the generator and load
ends:
Z  Z o 200  50 3
L  L    0.6
Z L  Z o 200  50 5
Z G  Z o 100  50 1
G     0.333
Z G  Z o 100  50 3
• Next we determine the transit time t1 and the initial voltage at the generator end,
Vo:
l 100
t1   8  1s
v p 10
 Zo 
Vo   Vg   50 12V  4V

 Zo  Z g   150 

Smith Chart
MATCHING
• The 4 V is sent out to the load.
• The leading edge of the pulse arrives at the load at t=t1=1s.
• A portion of this pulse is reflected back, that is: V2=LVo=0.6(4V)=2.4
V.
• This reflected portion reaches the generator at t=2t1=2s.
• At the generator, a further portion is reflected back, namely: GV2 =
2.4/3 = 0.8 V.
• This then travels again to the load, reaching it at t=3t1=3s.
• Again, at the load, a portion of this voltage is reflected back toward
the generator, namely: L(0.8)=(0.6)(0.8)=0.48 V.
• The process continues, until the transients become negligible, as
shown in the figure, for the voltage bounce diagram.

Smith Chart
G L=3/5
z=0 z=l=100 m
t=0
4V
V= 0
V=4 V t1
2.4
V=4+2.4=6.4V
2t1
0.8
V=6.4+0.8=
7.2V 3t1
0.48
V=7.2 +0.48=
7.68V
4t1
0.16
V=7.68+0.16 =
7.84V 5t1
0.096
V=7.84+0.096
6t1 = 7.936V
0.032
V=7.936+0.032 = 7t1
7.968V 0.02
V=7.968+0.02 =
7.986V

Smith Chart
MATCHING
• From the bounce diagram, we notice that as t, the voltages approach an
asymptotic value of:
 ZL   200 
V   V  12V  8V
 Z  Z  g  300 
 L g 
• This should be expected because the equivalent circuits at t=0 and t= are such
that initially the generator sees Zo (the line impedance), but finally it sees ZL, the
load impedance.
• The same procedure is followed for the current bounce diagram, with I o=80 mA,
and I=40 mA.

Smith Chart
MATCHING
TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS
Two-wire Transmission Line :
For a 2-wire transmission line, whose wires have radius a, separated by a distance
D, with an insulator of dielectric constant , conductivity , and magnetic
permeability ; and conductors of conductivity c and magnetic permeability
c, operating at frequency f, we have the following values for R,L,G, and C:
1 fc  1  D 
R  / m; L  cosh   H / m
a  c   2a 
 
G S / m; C  F /m
cosh  D / 2a 
1
cosh  D / 2a 
1
276  D 
Zo  log 
 a
Smith Chart
MATCHING
TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS
Coaxial Transmission Line :
For a coaxial transmission line, with a centre conductor of radius a, and an outer
conductor of inner radius b, with an insulator of dielectric constant ,
conductivity , and magnetic permeability ; and conductors of conductivity
c and magnetic permeability c, operating at frequency f, we have the
following values for R,L,G, and C:
1 fc  1 1   b
R     / m; L  ln  H / m
2  c  a b  2  a 
2 2
G S / m; C  F /m
ln  b / a  ln  b / a 

Smith Chart
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• TWO-WIRE LINES
• Typical two-wire lines include the following:
• 1. Open-wire lines, which are bare copper-covered steel (CCS) conductors.
These have low attenuation. They are still used in some areas for carrier or
voice-frequency telephony.
• 2. Aerial & Underground multi-pair twisted cables: These are normally used as
distribution cables between exchange and cabinets/distribution points. They
have lower maintenance costs than open-wire lines. Multi-pair cables can be
used for frequencies up to 250 KHz.
• 3. Flat cable: This is often used between the distribution points and the
subscriber terminal equipment.
• Attenuation of balanced-pair lines increases with frequency, as does cross-talk.
At audio frequencies, the attenuation is given by:
CR

2
• Balanced-pair cables can be used for transmission of digital signals up to

2Mbps.

Smith Chart
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• COAXIAL CABLE
• A coaxial cable is a transmission line consisting of an unbalanced pair
made up of an inner conductor surrounded by a grounded outer
conductor, which is held in concentric configuration by a dielectric.
• The dielectric can be of many types, such as polyethylene, foam, air,
or gas.
• Systems have been designed to used coaxial cable as a transmission
medium with a capability of transmitting a frequency-division
multiplex (FDM) configuration ranging from 120 to 13,200 voice
channels.
• Community antenna television (CATV) systems use single cables for
transmitted bandwidths in the order of 300-500 MHz.
• For long-haul transmission, the standard cable sizes are as follows:

Smith Chart
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• COAXIAL CABLES
• The attenuation constant,, and characteristic impedance, Zo, for a cable of inner
conductor diameter 2a and outer conductor diameter 2b is given by:
1 1
f  
  1.325 x105  a b  dB / km
log b / a 
 138   b 
Z o    log  Ohms


 r  a
• For minimum attenuation, b/a=3.6. Then, for an air dielectric, Zo=77. If we use disk
spacers with air dielectric, the impedance lowers to 75. Using dielectric other than
air reduces the characteristic impedance below this.
• The attenuation in dB/km increases rapidly as a function of frequency. The
transmission engineer is basically interested in how much bandwidth is available to
transmit an FDM line frequency configuration. Attenuation is specified for the
highest frequency of interest.
• At 2.5 MHz, the large cable has an attenuation of 3.63 dB/km, while for the small
cable, it is 8 dB/km; at 5 MHz, the attenuations are 6.25 dB/km and 11.9 dB/km,
respectively.

Smith Chart
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• COAXIAL CABLES
• Coaxial cables can transmit signals down to dc, but in practice,
frequencies below 60 KHz are not used because of difficulties of
equalization and shielding. Sometimes, the lower limit is lifted to 312
KHz.
• Typical repeater spacing for a 12-MHz coaxial cable FDM systems
(carrying 2,700 voice channels) is 4-5 km. For 2.5 MHz system (600 vf
channels), the repeater spacing is 13 km; for 8-MHz system (1800 voice
channels), the spacing is 6.5 km; for the 17-MHz system (3,600 voice
channels), the spacing is 3.2 km; while for the 60-MHz system (10,800
voice channels), the spacing is 1.6 km.
• The gain most usually encountered in coaxial cable amplifiers is 30-35
dB.
• For radio links, the ITU-T recommends a noise level of 3-pWp per
kilometer, where pWp=picowatts of noise power with psophometric
weighting, where 1pWp=-90 dBm of noise power (pWp=pWx0.56).
• Thus for 3 pWp=-85dBm noise power.
• A voice channel with psophometric weighting has a 2.5 dB noise
improvement over a flat channel.

Smith Chart
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• COAXIAL CABLES – DESIGN EXAMPLE
• Consider a coaxial cable system 100 km long using the 9.5 mm cable capable
of transmitting up to 2,700 VF channels in an FDM/SSB configuration (12
MHz). Assume a signal of –15dBm at the originating end, and a similar level
required at the receiving end.
• At 12 MHz, the cable attenuation per km is 8.3 dB; therefore the total loss
over 100 km is 830 dB.
• One approach for the system design engineer might be to install an 830-dB
amplifier at the front end of the 100-km section. This is not realizable.
• The other approach is to install a 415-dB amplifier at the front end, and
another one at the 50-km point. Therefore, at the sending end, the signal level
after amplification would be:
Ps  15dBm  415dB  400dBm  370dBW
• Remember that +60dBW=1MW; hence this amplifier would give us 10 31 MW.

• Still another approach is to have 10 amplifiers of 83-dB gain each at 10-km
intervals, or 20 amplifiers of 41.5 dB each at 5 km intervals; or 30 amplifiers
of 27.7dB each, at 3.33 km intervals.

Smith Chart
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• The gain most usually encountered in coaxial cable amplifiers is 30-
35dB.
• The design should reach an optimum from noise standpoint, noting that the
upper limit for noise accumulation (thermal & intermodulation noise) is
3pWp/km. This implies that, over 100-km length, the total allowable
noise level is 300pWp.
• For a 4-KHz VF channel, at room temperature, the total noise is already
given for N amplifiers as:
Pn (dBm)  138  NFdB  G (dB)  10 log N
• If we assume a minimum signal-to-noise power ratio of 50 dB, and typical
amplifier noise figure of 10 dB, we have:
Pn (dBm)  128  G (dB)  10 log N
• But we have, given the path total loss of 830 dB, the following equation
(G is not in dB):
83
N 10 log G   830  log G 
N
Smith Chart
TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Smith Chart
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• Thus for optimum design, we choose 20 amplifiers, each of gain 41.5dB,
spaced at 5 km apart, to give a signal-to-noise ratio of at least 50 dB.
• However, since the available amplifiers are in the range 30-35 dB, we
choose 25 amplifiers, each of 33.2dB gain, spaced 4 km apart, to give a
signal-to-noise ratio of 66 dB.
• Note that we could still opt for 24 repeaters, each with a gain of 34.6dB,
giving a SNR of about 64.6 dB.
• Also note that the ITU-T noise criterion of 3pWp/km, gives 300 pWp for
the 100-km route, which is –67.7 dBm noise power. This includes both
thermal noise and inter-modulation noise. This is the maximum allowable
noise in the system, for it to meet specified design conditions. In our
design, we have only restricted ourselves to thermal noise.
• Due to the non-linear attenuation-versus-frequency response of a coaxial
cable, cable equalization is incorporated in the system design.
Equalization corrects the amplitude response to make it more uniform over
the 0-12 MHz band, to assure that the SNR in each FDM channel is
essentially the same no matter what its assignment is in the frequency
spectrum.

Smith Chart

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EM-THEORY

Lecturer: Dr. Thomas Afullo,

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 1

• From these we can derive two second-order differential equations:

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 2

• where R is the line resistance in Ohms/m, L the inductance in henries/m, C the

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 3

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 4

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 5

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 6

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 7

• To determine V1 and V2 from the equations, the terminal conditions

• Substituting these terminal values

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 8

• Substituting these into equations1 for V(z) and I(z), we get:

• Next, we determine the input impedance, Zin; at the generator, for

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 9

• For a lossless line, =j; and the input impedance becomes:

• For an open-circuited line, the input impedance is:

• For a short-circuited line, ZL=0; the input impedance is:

• Since ZL and Zo are in general complex, so is o; then:

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 11

Consider the above transmission line, of length l, with characteristic

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 12

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 13

• The magnitude of this voltage along the line is:

• Similarly, the magnitude of current a distance –l from the load is:

• POWER DELIVERED TO THE LOAD – MATCHED LINE

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 16

• POWER DELIVERED TO THE LOAD – MISMATCHED LOSSY LINE

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 17

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 18

1  r  ji  (1  r  ji 1  r  ji 

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 19

• Completing the squares on left-hand side, we get constant reactance curves:

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 20

Constant Resistance Circles Constant Reactance Circles

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 21

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 22

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 23

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 25

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 26

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 28

V (0,2t1 )  V1  V2  G LVo  (1  L )Vo  (1  L  G L )Vo

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 29

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 30

Bounce Diagram – voltage wave Bounce Diagram – current wave

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 31

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 32

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 33

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 34

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 35

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 36

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 38

• Balanced-pair cables can be used for transmission of digital signals up to

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 39

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 40

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 41

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 42

Ps  15dBm  415dB  400dBm  370dBW

• Remember that +60dBW=1MW; hence this amplifier would give us 10 31 MW.

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 43

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 45

Transmission Lines and EM THEORY 46