Meteorology and air pollution

• Air pollution meteorology is the study of how

pollutants are delivered and dispersed into the
ambient air
• The environmental scientist is particularly interested in
the data obtained from dispersion modeling because it
provides critical information about the fate and effect
of pollutants upon human health and the environment.
• In fact, the ability to predict the behavior of pollution
in the ambient air is essential when attempting to
manage and control its impact.

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 Plan of the lecture

• Atmospheric thermodynamics
• Adiabatic Lapse rate
• Atmospheric stability
• Wind speed and direction
• Global atmospheric circulation
• Effect of meteorology on plume
dispersion
• Mixing height
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 The Atmosphere
• Pollution cloud is interpreted by the chemical
composition and physical characteristics of the
atmosphere
• Concentration of gases in the atmosphere varies from
trace levels to very high levels
• Nitrogen and oxygen are the main constituents Some
constituents such as water vapor vary in space and time
• Four major layers of earth’s atmosphere are:
– Troposphere
– Stratosphere
– Mesosphere
– Thermosphere
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 Atmosphere- Temperature profile

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 Atmospheric pressure gradient

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 Atmospheric Thermodynamics
A parcel of air is defined using the state variables
Three important state variables are density, pressure and
temperature
The units and dimensions for the state variables are
Density gm/cm3 ML-3
(mass/volume)

Pressure (Force/Area) N/m2 ( Pa ) ML-1T-2

Temperature o
F, o R, o C, o K T

 Humidity is the fourth important variable that gives the amount of water
vapor present in a sample of moist air
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 Equation of State

Relationship between the three state

variables may be written as:
f ( P, ρ ,T) = 0

For a perfect gas:

P = ρ .R .T
R is Specific gas constant
R for dry air = 287 Joules / Kg /K
 R for water vapor = 461 Joules /K g/K
 R for wet air is not constant and depend on mixing ratio

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 Laws of Thermodynamics

 First Law of Thermodynamics:

Law of conservation of total energy, for open
system: dh = TdS + vdp, or dq = dh – vdp
 Second Law of Thermodynamics:
This law can be stated as "no cyclic process
exists having the transference of heat from a
colder to hotter body as its sole effect"
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 Specific Heat
Defined as the amount of heat needed to change the temperature
of unit mass by 1oK.
 Specific heat at constant volume

Cv = lim δQ
δT→0 δT v = const

o Specific heat at constant pressure

Cp = lim δQ
δT→0 δT p = const


Relationship between Cv and Cp is given by Carnot’s / Mayer law:

 For perfect gas, Cp – Cv = R

 For dry air Cp = (7/2)*R (Perfect diatomic gas)
Cv = (5/2)*R (Perfect diatomic gas)
 Ratio of Cp and Cv for dry air is 1.4
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Cpd = 1003 joules/Kg.K ; Cvd = 717 joules/Kg .K 9
 Processes in the Atmosphere

An air parcel follows several different

paths when it moves from one point to
another point in the atmosphere. These
are:
– Isobaric change – constant pressure
– Isochoric change – constant volume
– Isothermal change – constant temperature
– Isentropic change – constant entropy (S)
– Adiabatic Process – δQ = 0

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 Statics of the Atmosphere

Vertical variation of the parameters

Hydrostatic Equation:
Pressure variation in a "motionless" atmosphere
p 1 p
.g or  g
z  z

Relationship between pressure and elevation using gas law:

1 p  g

p z Rd T

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11/18/2020 12
 Statics of the Atmosphere

Integration of the above equation gives

 p   g z

ln    0 T . dz 
1


 po   Rd

Using the initial condition Z=0, P = P0

– The above equation indicates that the variation of
pressure depends on vertical profile of temperature.
– For isothermal atmosphere
p   g 1 
 exp  To . z 


po  Rd 

– Therefore, pressure decreases exponentially with

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 Lapse rate

Lapse Rate:
– Lapse rate is the rate of change of temperature
with height
– Lapse rate is defined as Γ = -δT
δz
– Value of  Γ varies throughout the atmosphere
Potential Temperature:
– Concept of potential temperature is useful in comparing two air
parcels at same temperatures and different pressures.

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 Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 The first law of thermodynamics: dq = dh – vdp,

 Adiabatic process: dq = 0, then dh = vdp,

But dh = CpdT, and dp = - ρ.g.dz

Then CpdT = vdp = 1/ρ (-ρ.g.dz)

 Finally: Γ = dT/dz = - g/Cp – adiabatic lapse rate

For Cp = 1003 J/Kg.K and g = 9.81 m/s2

dT/dz = - 10ºC/Km

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 Standard and adiabatic atmosphere

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 Atmospheric Stability
• While wind speed and direction generally relate to
the horizontal movement of air, atmospheric stability
relates to the forces that move air vertically
• The vertical movement of air, or atmospheric
stability, is most directly affected by high and low-
pressure systems that lift air over terrain and mix it
with the upper atmosphere.
• The stability at any given time will depend upon static
stability (related to change in temperature with
height), thermal turbulence ( caused by solar
heating ), and mechanical turbulence (a function of
wind speed and surface roughness).
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 Atmospheric stability

• A critical relationship exists between atmospheric

stability and pollutant concentrations.
• Pollutants that cannot be transported or dispersed
into the upper atmosphere quickly become trapped
at ground level and pose a significant risk to human
health and the environment
• This relationship can be visualized in the behavior of
emission plumes from industrial smoke stacks.

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 Atmospheric stability

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 Atmospheric Stability Classification

Schemes to define atmospheric stability are:

– P- G Method
– P-G / NWS Method
– The STAR Method
– BNL Scheme
– Sigma Phi Method
– Sigma Omega Method
– Modified Sigma Theta Method
– NRC Temperature Difference Method
– Wind Speed ratio (UR) Method
– Radiation Index Method
– AERMOD Method (Stable and Convective cases)
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 Pasquill-Gifford Stability Categories
Daytime Insolation Nighttime cloud cover

Surface Wind
Speed (m/s)
Thinly overcast
Strong Moderate Slight or 4/8 low cloud 3/8

<2 A  A-B B - -

2-3 A-B B C E F

3-5 B B-C C D E

5-6 C C-D D D D

>6 C D D D D

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 Sigma Theta stability classification

CATEGORY PASQUILL CLASS SIGMA THETA (ST)

EXTREME UNSTABLE A ST>=22.5

MODERATE UNSTABLE B 22.5>ST>=17.5

SLIGHTLY UNSTABLE C 17.5>ST>=12.5

NEUTRAL D 12.5>ST>=7.5

SLIGHTLY STABLE E 7.5>ST>= 3.8

MODERATE STABLE F 3.8>ST>=2.1

EXTREMELY STABLE G 2.1>ST

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 Temperature Difference (∆T)

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 Wind speed

• A principle feature of atmospheric circulation

is wind speed or velocity. Air movement
associated with the horizontal motion of the
atmosphere is commonly called wind and
significantly affects pollutant concentration.
• In general, the higher the wind’s velocity, the
lower the pollutant concentration will be

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 Wind speed
Geostrophic / Gradient Velocity
• Wind speed increases with elevation, most of the
time, in most of the troposphere
• The reason is that ground friction slows the wind.
Typically the wind will reach its frictionless velocity
(called the geostrophic or gradient velocity) at
about 500 m (1640 ft) above the ground
• The region below this elevation, where ground
friction plays a significant role, is the planetary
boundary layer

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 Wind speed
the power law
A power law profile is used to describe the variation of wind
speed with height in the surface boundary layer
(10 ≤ Z ≤ 500)
U = U1 (Z/Z1)p
Where, U1 is the velocity at Z1 (usually 10 m) , U is the velocity at height Z.
The values of p are given in the following table.

Stability Class Rural p Urban p

Very Unstable 0.07 0.15

Neutral 0.15 0.25

Very Stable 0.55 0.30

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 Beaufort Scale

This scale is helpful in getting an idea on the

magnitude of wind speed from real life observations

Atmospheric Wind speed Comments

condition
Calm < 1mph Smoke rises vertically

Light breeze 5 mph Wind felt on face

Gentle breeze 10 mph Leaves in constant motion

Strong 25 mph Large branches in motion

Violent storm 60 mph Wide spread damage

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 Wind speed measurement
• Wind speed can be measured in many ways, but two of the most
common instruments used to measure wind velocity are the
rotating cup and propeller anemometers.
• The rotating cup anemometer is more accurate and usually
consists of three cone-shaped cups mounted symmetrically on a
vertical axis.
• Propeller anemometers are characterized by a two-, three-, or
four-bladed propeller attached to a vane and mounted on a
vertical shaft. While both anemometers can effectively measure
horizontal wind speed and direction, an additional propeller
must be mounted perpendicular to the axis in order to measure
vertical drafts of wind

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 Rotating cup anemometer

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 Turbulence

• Air circulates on the earth in a three

dimensionally movement not only
vertically and horizontally. This
movement is called turbulence
(Fluctuations in wind flow which have a
frequency of more than 2 cycles/ hr)
• Types of Turbulence
– Mechanical Turbulence
– Thermal

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 Turbulence

• Thermal turbulence results from atmospheric

heating
• Mechanical turbulence results from the
movement of air past an obstruction.

 On clear sunny days with light winds, Thermal

Turbulence is dominant.
 Mechanical Turbulence is dominant on windy
night with neutral atmospheric stability
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 Wind direction

A sophisticated network of air pollution

monitoring stations have been created to
record seasonal wind patterns and directions
and prepare streamline maps that help
predict, with relative accuracy, the transport
of pollution at specific times or seasons
throughout the year.

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 Wind direction measurement
windsock and wind vanes

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 Wind Rose Diagram (WRD)

WRD provides the graphical summary of

the frequency distribution of wind
direction and wind speed over a period of
time.
Steps to develop a wind rose diagram from hourly observations
are:

Analysis for wind direction

Determination of frequency of wind in a given wind direction

Analysis for mean wind speed

Preparation of polar diagram

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 Wind rose

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 Calculations for Wind Rose

% Frequency =
Number of observations * 100/Total Number
of Observations

Direction: N, NNE, ------------------------,NNW

Wind speed: Calm, 1-3, 4-6, 7-10, -----------

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 HORIZONTAL ATMOSPHERIC MOTION

The horizontal movement of the atmosphere

(the horizontal component of winds) is driven
mostly by:
 Uneven heating of the earth's surface
 The effect of the earth's rotation
(Coriolis force)
 Influence of the ground and the sea
(Friction force)

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 Global wind belts- atmospheric circulation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oCdqGkn-B1E&spfreload=10#t=730.398859

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 Global circulation mechanism
Equatorial Heating, Polar Cooling
• Averaged over the year, the solar heat flow to the
earth's surface at the equator is 2.4 times that at the
poles . The atmosphere moves in response to this
difference in heating, and in so doing transports heat
from the tropics to the Poles, partly evening out the
temperature difference from equator to poles
• Distribution of heat results from warm air rising at the
heat source (solar-heated equator) and cold air sinking
where the surroundings are coldest (the Poles)

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 Global circulation mechanism
• In the Northern Hemisphere we see from the circulation cells
sketched at the edges of the figure a south-to-north flow at high
altitude and a north-to-south flow at the surface in the tropical
and polar cells with oppositely directed flows in the temperate
cell.
• There are seven boundaries between cells on the globe, one at
the equator and two in each hemisphere and two at the Poles.
• At the boundary at the equator and the two between the
temperate and polar cells the air is rising;
• At the boundaries between tropical and temperate cells and at
the Poles (which are "hole in the donut" boundaries) the air is
sinking.

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 Global circulation mechanism

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 Global circulation mechanism

• Rising air is cooled and produces rain, while sinking air is

heated and becomes relatively dry.
• The rising boundaries (equator and temperate-polar
boundaries) are regions of higher than average rainfall;
most of the world's rain forests are located near the
equatorial rising zone, and the great temperate forests are
near the temperate polar rising zones.
• The sinking boundaries (the Poles and the tropical-
temperate boundaries) are regions of lower than average
rainfall; most of the world's great deserts are located near
the temperate-tropical sinking zones.

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 Global circulation mechanism

• The Poles also have little precipitation; they

are cold deserts, where the small amount of
precipitation remains as ice and snow because
there is negligible evaporation or melting.

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 Global circulation mechanism
Coriolis effect
Unlike gravitational and centrifugal forces,
which are independent of the motion of the
body being acted upon, the Coriolis force (or
Coriolis acceleration) acts at right angles to
the motion of the body, is proportional to the
velocity of the moving body, and is given by:

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 Global circulation mechanism
Coriolis effect example

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 Temperature inversion
definition
Definition: Temperature inversion, is a reversal
of the normal behavior of temperature in the
troposphere, in which a layer of cool air at the
surface is overlain by a layer of warmer
air. (Under normal conditions, temperature
usually decreases with height).

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 Temperature inversion
air pollution
• Temperature inversions play a significant role
in air pollution meteorology. Within an
inversion the air is stable against buoyant
vertical motion.
• That stability also lessens the exchange of wind
energy between the air layer near the ground
and high altitude winds, so that both
horizontal and vertical dispersions of
pollutants are hindered.
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 Temperature inversion classification

They can be classified:

• According to the method of formation
• According to the height of the base, the
thickness, and the intensity.
An inversion may be based at the surface or in
the upper air.

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 Temperature inversion
according to formation
There are four ways to produce an inversion:
 Cool a layer of air from below, (radiation)
 Heat a layer of air from above, (subsidence)
 Flow a layer of warm air over a layer of cold
air,
 Flow a layer of cold air under a layer of warm
air .

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 Cooling an air layer from below
radiation/surface inversion
 Cooling from below, is the very common radiation / surface
inversion
 A surface inversion usually occurs on clear nights with low wind
speed. In this situation the ground cools rapidly due to the
prevalence of long-wave radiation to the outer atmosphere. Other
heat transfer components are negligible which means the surface of
the earth is cooling. The surface air becomes cooler than the air
above it, and vertical air flow is halted. In the morning the sun
warms the surface of the earth, and the breakup of the inversion is
rapid. Smoke plumes from stacks are quite often trapped in the
radiation inversion layer at night and then brought to the ground in
a fumigation during morning hours. The result is high ground-level
concentration.

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 Heating an air layer from above
subsidence inversion
• Heating an air layer from above can occur if a cloud layer absorbs
incoming solar energy, but it most often occurs when there is a
high-pressure region (common in summer between storms) in
which there is a slow net downward flow of air and light winds.
• The sinking air mass will increase in temperature at the adiabatic
lapse rate and often become warmer than the air below it. The
result is an elevated inversion, also called subsidence inversion or
inversion aloft. These normally form 1500 to 15 000 ft above the
ground, and they inhibit atmospheric mixing.
• These inversions are common in sunny, low-wind situations, e.g.,
Los Angeles in summer.

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 Cold air flowing in under warm air
• Nighttime flow of cold air down valleys often leads to inversions at the
bottom of the valley, with cold air flowing in under warmer air. In the
winter this nighttime flow of cold air causes drainage inversions. In
effect the valley collects all the ground cooled air from the whole
watershed above it. If condensation results, forming a fog, then the
sun cannot get to the ground during the day, and the inversion will
persist for days until a major storm clears it out.
• The presence of snow on the uphill ground makes these inversions
stronger because snow is a good reflector of sunlight and a good
emitter at infrared wavelengths. Thus the daily average net heat input
is less for snow-covered surfaces than for bare ground or vegetation.
• Sea or lake breezes also bring cold air in under warm air, and can cause
inversions or add to existing inversions.

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 Warm air flowing over a layer of cold air

• Air flowing down the lee side of a mountain

range is warmed by adiabatic compression. Air
flowing down the east side of the Rock
Mountains is often warmed to temperatures
higher than that of the air at the foot of the
mountains.
• The warm air rides over the cold air, thus
forming a strong inversion that can be very
persistent.
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Temperature inversion effects on pollution
• All inversions, either at ground level or at higher elevations, inhibit
atmospheric mixing and thus lead to the accumulation of pollutants.
• In summer, with clear skies, heating of the ground by the sun will
normally eliminate an inversion every day, However, local effects, like
cool onshore breezes, may be powerful enough to maintain inversions.·
• In winter the sun is often not strong enough to eliminate such
inversions, and they may persist until a major storm brings winds strong
enough to overcome the local topographic effects and sweep them
away.
• If the inversion is strong enough to form a fog in a valley, it will reflect
away sunlight, making the inversion persist longer than it would
without the fog. Persistent drainage inversions in closed or semi closed
basins often lead to maximal pollutant concentrations.

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CASE STUDY:
(1) typical spring day in the Mojave Desert of California, which
is dry enough that moisture plays no role;
(2) there are no clouds; and (3) winds are light or moderate

All night the ground surface has been cooling, and at dawn its temperature
is perhaps 50°F. At infrared wavelengths the ground is an almost perfect
blackbody radiator, so it is quite efficient at radiating heat to outer space.
The ground surface has also been cooling the layer of air above it. The
cooled air layer nearest the ground cools the layer of air above it, so that
there is a steady flow of heat downward from the air to the ground by
conduction, slight convection, and radiation. (Dry air, which is practically
transparent to visible light, is not transparent to infrared radiation and does
transfer some heat by infrared radiation.) At dawn, temperature increases
with elevation up to perhaps 1000 ft. At that point the "cooling wave" from
the ground runs into the lapse rate left over from the previous day, and the
temperature continues along up the standard atmosphere curve.

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 Atmospheric stability and temperature
inversion (case study)

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 Types of plumes

Six types of air pollution plumes illustrate the

relationship between atmospheric stability
and pollutant emissions:
looping plumes, fanning plumes, coning
plumes, lofting plumes, fumigating plumes,
and trapping plumes.

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 Looping plume

• Pollution that is released into an unstable atmosphere

forms looping plumes.
• Rapid changes in temperature and pressure may result in
plumes that appear puffy. While unstable conditions are
usually favorable for pollutant dispersion, high
concentrations of air pollution forced down by cooling air
can be harmful if trapped at ground level.
• This can occur on sunny days with light to moderate
winds, which combine with rising and sinking air to cause
the stack gases to move up and down in a wavy pattern
producing a looping plume
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 Looping plume

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 Fanning plume

• A fanning plume occurs during stable conditions and

is characterized by long, flat streams of pollutant
emissions.
• Because atmospheric pressure is stable, there is
neither a tendency for emissions to rise nor descend
permitting (horizontal) wind velocity to transport and
disperse the pollutant.
• Fanning plumes are usually seen during the early
morning hours just before the sun begins to warm
the atmosphere and winds are light
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 Fanning plume

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 Coning plume

• Neutral or slightly unstable conditions create a

coning plume that is distinguished by large
billows or puffs of pollutants.
• Coning plumes are typically formed on partly
cloudy days when there is an alternate warming
and cooling of the atmosphere.
• Warm gases released into cool, ambient air mix,
expand, and rise into the upper atmosphere

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 Coning plume

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 Lofting plume
• When the atmosphere is relatively stable, warm air remains
above cool air and creates an inversion layer.
• Pollutants released below the inversion layer will remain
trapped at ground level and, in the absence of any atmospheric
instability, prevent the upward transport of the pollutant.
• When there is little or no vertical mixing, pollutants tend to
form in high concentrations at ground level.
• When conditions are unstable or neutral above the inversion
layer, stack gases above that level form a lofting plume that can
effectively disperse the pollutant into the upper atmosphere

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 Lofting plume

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 Fumigating plume

• In the early morning, if the plume is released just below

the inversion layer, a very serious air pollution episode
could develop.
• When pollutants are released below the inversion layer,
gaseous emissions quickly cool and descend to ground
level.
• This condition is known as fumigation and results in a high
concentration of pollution that can be damaging to both
humans and the environment alike.
• This atmospheric condition characterizes the most
destructive type of air pollution episode possible
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 Fumigating plume

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 Trapping plume

• A trapping plume is produced on clear, sunny days or clear

nights with light winds.
• A trapped plume is the result of an unstable air mass that
creates an inversion layer both above and below the
plume.
• A trapped plume, in contrasted with a fumigating plume, is
one of the most favorable types of plume for pollutant
dispersion.
• Temperature inversions, both above and below the plume,
protect ground sources from potential exposure while
winds at altitude disperse and dilute the pollutant
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 Trapping plume

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 Plume rise
• The distance that the plume rises above the stack is called
plume rise. It is actually calculated as the distance to the
imaginary centerline of the plume rather than to the upper or
lower edge of the plume.
• Plume rise, Δh, depends on the stack’s physical characteristics.
• For example, the effluent characteristic of stack temperature in
relation to the surrounding air temperature is more important
than the stack characteristic of height.
• The difference in temperature between the stack gas (Ts) and
the ambient air (Ta) determine plume density and that density
affects plume rise.

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 Plume rise

• Stack characteristics are used to determine

momentum, and effluent characteristics are
used to determine buoyancy.
• The stack provides the initial momentum of the
effluent. It is determined by the speed of the
effluent as it exits the stack.
• As momentum carries the effluent out of the
stack, atmospheric conditions begin to affect
the plume
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 Plume rise

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 Plume rise
effect of the wind
• The condition of the atmosphere, including the
winds and temperature profile along the path of
the plume, will largely determine the plume’s rise.
• As the plume rises from the stack, the wind speed
across the stack top begins to tilt the plume. Wind
speed usually increases with distance above the
earth’s surface.
• As the plume continues upward the stronger
winds tilt the plume even farther.

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 Plume rise effect of the wind

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 Topography effect on transport and
dispersion of air pollution
• Topography is simply the representation of
surface features such as mountains, hills, rivers,
and valleys.
• For example, the location of an urban area in or
around a mountain range can create significant
pollution problems for the population.
• While horizontal and vertical airflow can be
conducive to pollutant dispersion, a mountain
range becomes a natural barrier.
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 Effect of valleys

• In addition, air has a natural tendency to flow

downhill and accumulate in a valley floor in much the
same manner as water. As cool, dense air descends
into a valley, large populations may be put at great
risk for excessive exposure to pollutants.
• When this natural flow of cool air is accompanied by a
temperature inversion, the effect upon human health
can be catastrophic. In some valleys the inversion
layer can be several hundred meters thick, resulting in
air pollution being trapped at ground level.

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 Effects of lakes and oceans
• Large bodies of water also affect the transport and dispersion
of air pollution.
• Air that is located over land heats more rapidly than lakes and
oceans, which absorbs more heat, but at a slower rate.
• As the heated air rises into the upper atmosphere, it cools
and tends to migrate toward other cold air masses, most of
which are found over large bodies of water.
• This cycle begins as a warm parcel of air settles over water,
rapidly cools, and creates a weak circulation cell.
• The cycle is completed during hours of darkness as sea
breezes recycle air back toward the cooling landmasses.

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 Effect of mountains
• Although many other factors contribute to the air pollution
problems in cities, the topography of the surrounding area has
a significant and unyielding influence.
• Even under the most favorable atmospheric conditions, natural
barriers such as mountain ranges easily trap escaping pollutants
• Although little can be done to overcome the effects of
topographic features, intelligent planning that relies on
recorded information regarding seasonal patterns of wind
speed and direction, atmospheric stability, and topography can
significantly reduce the harmful effects of air pollution on
population centers.

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 Mixing height

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 Determination of Maximum
Mixing Height
Steps to determine the maximum mixing
height for a day are:

Plot the temperature profile, if needed

Plot the maximum surface temperature for the day on the
graph for morning temperature profile

Draw dry adiabatic line from a point of maximum surface
temperature to a point where it intersects the morning
temperature profile

Read the corresponding height above ground at the point
of intersection obtained. This is the maximum mixing
height for the day
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 Determination of Maximum Mixing
Height

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