Data and Computer

Communications

Tenth Edition
by William Stallings

Data and Computer Communications, Tenth

Edition by William Stallings, (c) Pearson
Education - 2013
 CHAPTER 9

WAN Technology and Protocols

Switched Communications
Networks
Switching nodes - provide a switching facility that move data between
nodes

Stations – devices attached to the network

Nodes – switching devices that provide communication

Communications network – collection of nodes

Switched communication network – data entering the network from a

station are routed to the destination by being switched from node to node
 Mainframe

Personal C
computer
2 Server

1
3
B D

5
Personal
computer
Switching E
4 Node
Personal
6 computer

A 7
Personal
computer
F
Figure 9.1 Simple Switching Network
 Circuit Switching
 Uses a dedicated path  Has three phases
between two stations
 Can be inefficient
Establish
 Channel capacity
dedicated for duration
of connection
 If no data, capacity is
wasted Transfer
 Set up (connection)
takes time
 Once connected,
Disconnect
transfer is transparent
 Long-distance Long-distance
office office

End Office
End Office

Digital PBX

Figure 9.2 Example Connection Over a Public Circuit-Switching Network

a

b End
office

c
Trunk
Intermediate
exchange
Trunk

End
office
d

Figure 9.3 Circuit Establishment

Circuit-Switching Technology
 Driven by applications that handle voice traffic
 Key requirement is no transmission delay and no
variation in delay
 Efficient for analog transmission of voice signals
 Inefficient for digital transmission
 Transparent
 Once a circuit is established it appears as a

direct connection; no special logic is needed

 Control Unit

to attached devices
Full-duplex lines
Digital Switch

Network
Interface

Figure 9.4 Elements of a Circuit-Switch Node

Circuit-Switching Concepts

Network
Digital switch Control unit
interface
• Provides a • Functions • Establishes,
transparent and maintains,
signal path hardware and tears
• Must allow needed to down the
full-duplex connect connection
transmission digital
devices
 Blocking or Non-blocking
Blocking network
 May be unable to connect
stations because all paths
are in use
 Used on voice systems
because it is expected for
phone calls to be of short
duration and that only a
fraction of the phones will
be engaged at any one
time
Non-blocking network
 Permits all stations to
connect at once
 Grants all possible
connection requests as
long as the called party is
free
 When using data
connections terminals can
be continuously connected
for long periods of time so
nonblocking configurations
are required
 Space Division Switching
 Originally developed for analog, space
division switching has been carried over
into the digital realm
 Signal paths are physically separate from
one another
 Path is dedicated solely to transfer signals
 Basic building block of switch is a metallic
crosspoint or semiconductor gate
Input Lines

Output Lines

Figure 9.5 Space-Division Switch

 FIRST STAGE SECOND STAGE THIRD STAGE

1 5 2 2 5 1
switch switch
2 2

3 2 2 switch 3

4 4

5 5

2 2 switch

6 5 2 2 5 6
switch switch
7 7

8 8

9 9

10 10

Figure 9.6 Three-Stage Space-Division Switch

 Time Division Switching
 Modern digital systems use intelligent
control of space & time division elements
 Use digital time division techniques to set
up and maintain virtual circuits
 Partition low speed bit stream into pieces
that share higher speed stream
 Individual pieces manipulated by control
logic to flow from input to output
1 a b b a 1
I J I J
I I
TSI
J J
N N

(a) TSI Operation

Data in Data out

Write address

I a
Read
J b address

Data store J I

Read address
I J
Time slot
counter Address
store

(b) TSI Mechanism

Figure 9.7 Time-Slot Interchange

 SEL

SEL

SEL SEL

TSI

TSI

Figure 9.8 A Time-Multiplexed Switch

 SWITCH

Call SS7
processing Network

Request to generate progress

Supervisory events tones (e.g., ringback, engaged).
(e.g., off-hook, on-hook) Instructions to establish switch
fabric connections.

Circuit- Circuit-
switching switched
fabric trunks

(a) Traditional circuit switching

Media SS7
gateway Network
controller

Request to generate progress

Supervisory events tones (e.g., ringback, engaged) .
(e.g., off-hook, on-hook) Instructions to establish switch
fabric connections.

Circuit- or packet- Media Circuit- or packet-

switched gateway switched
access trunks

(b) Softswitch architecture

Figure 9.9 Comparison between Traditional Circuit Switching and Softswitch

 Packet Switching
 Circuit switching was designed for voice
 Packet switching was designed for data
 Transmitted in small packets
 Packets contain user data and control info
 User data may be part of a larger message
 Control information includes routing (addressing)
 Packets are received, stored briefly (buffered)
and passed on to the next node
 Application data

Packet-Switching
control information Network
(packet header)

packet

Figure 9.10 The Use of Packets

 Advantages
 Line efficiency
 Single link shared by many packets over time
 Packets queued and transmitted as fast as possible
 Data rate conversion
 Stations connect to local node at own speed
 Nodes buffer data if required to equalize rates
 Packets accepted even when network is busy
 Priorities can be used
 Switching Techniques
 Stationbreaks long message into packets
 Packets sent one at a time to the network
 Packets can be handled in two ways:

Datagram Virtual circuit

• Each packet is treated • A preplanned route is
independently with no established before
reference to previous any packets are sent
packets
 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Figure 9.11 Packet Switching: Datagram Approach

 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Figure 9.12 Packet Switching: Virtual-Circuit Approach

 Virtual Circuits vs. Datagram
 Virtual circuits
 Network can provide sequencing and error
control
 Packets are forwarded more quickly
 Less reliable
 Datagram
 No call setup phase
 More flexible
 More reliable
(a) 1-packet message (b) 2-packet message (c) 5-packet message (d) 10-packet message

1
Header 1

Data 2 1
1
Data 2 1 3 2 1

4 3 2
3 2 1
5 4 3
Data Data
2 1 4 3 2 6 5 4

7 6 5
5 4 3
8 7 6
Data Data
Data
2 1 5 4 9 8 7

10 9 8
5
10 9
Data
X a b Y 10
2

X a b Y
X a b Y

Data

X a b Y

Figure 9.13 Effect of Packet Size on Transmission Time

 External Network Interface
 ITU-T standard for interface between host
and packet switched network
 Almost universal on packet switched
networks and packet switching in ISDN
 Defines three layers

Physical Link Packet

 Mainframe

C
Personal
Server
computer

D
Personal
B computer

Personal
computer
Packet-Switching
E
Network
Personal
computer

A
Solid line = physical link
Dashed line = virtual circuit
F

Figure 9.14 The Use of Virtual Circuits

 (a) Circuit switching (b) Virtual circuit packet switching (c) Datagram packet switching

propagation processing
Call delay delay Call
request request
signal packet
Pkt1
Call Call
accept accept Pkt2
signal packet Pkt1
Pkt3
Pkt2
Pkt1
Pkt3
Pkt2
User Pkt1
data Pkt3
Pkt2
Pkt1
Acknowledge-
ment signal Pkt3
Pkt2
Pkt1
Pkt3
Pkt2

Pkt3 Acknowledge-
ment packet

link link link

Nodes: 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Figure 9.15 Event Timing for Circuit Switching and Packet Switching
 Circuit Switching
Dedicated transmission path
Continuous transmission of
data
Fast enough for interactive
Messages are not stored
The path is established for
entire conversation
Call setup delay; negligible
transmission delay
Busy signal if called party
busy
Overload may block call
setup; no delay for established
calls
Electromechanical or
computerized switching nodes
User responsible for message
loss protection
Usually no speed or code
conversion
Fixed bandwidth
No overhead bits after call
setup
Datagram Packet Switching
No dedicated path
Transmission of packets
Fast enough for interactive
Packets may be stored until
delivered
Route established for each
packet
Packet transmission delay
Sender may be notified if
packet not delivered
Overload increases packet
delay
Small switching nodes
Network may be responsible
for individual packets
Speed and code conversion
Dynamic use of bandwidth
Overhead bits in each packet
Virtual Circuit Packet
Switching
No dedicated path
Transmission of packets
Table 9.1  
Fast enough for interactive
Packets stored until delivered
Route established for entire
conversation Comparison
of
Call setup delay; packet
transmission delay Communication
Sender notified of connection Switching
denial Techniques
Overload may block call
setup; increases packet delay
Small switching nodes
Network may be responsible
for packet sequences
Speed and code conversion
(Table can be found
Dynamic use of bandwidth on page 315 in
Overhead bits in each packet textbook)
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM)
 A switching and multiplexing technology that employs
small, fixed-length packets called cells
 A fixed-size packet ensures function could be carried out
efficiently, with little delay variation
 Small cell size supports delay-intolerant interactive voice
service with a small packetization delay
 Designed to provide the performance of a circuit-
switching network and the flexibility and efficiency of a
packet-switching network
 Standardization effort was to provide a powerful set of
tools for supporting a rich QoS capability and a powerful
traffic management capability
 ATM
 Commonly used by telecommunications
providers to implement wide area
networks
 Used by many DSL implementations
 Used as a backbone network technology
in numerous IP networks
 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) has
reduced the role for ATM
 Virtual Channel Connection
(VCC)
 Logical connection in ATM
 Analogous to a virtual circuit
 Basic unit of switching in an ATM network
 Set up between two end users through the
network, and a variable-rate, full duplex flow
of fixed-size cells is exchanged over the
connection
 Also used for user-network exchange and
network-network exchange
Virtual Channels

Virtual Path
Physical
Transmission Path

Figure 9.16 ATM Connection Relationships

 Virtual Path Advantages
Simplified network architecture

• Network transport functions can be separated into those related to an

individual logical connection and those related to a group of logical
connections

Increased network performance and reliability

• The network deals with fewer, aggregated entities

Reduced processing and short connection setup time

• By reserving capacity on a virtual path connection, new virtual channel

connections can be established by executing simple control functions at
the endpoints of the virtual path connection

Enhanced network services

• The virtual path is used internal to the network but is also visible to the
end user; the user may define closed user groups or closed networks of
virtual channel bundles
Virtual Channel Characteristics
 ITU-TRecommendation I.150 lists the following
characteristics of VCCs:
Quality of service (QoS)
• Specified by parameters such as cell loss ratio and cell delay variation

Switched and semipermanent VCCs

• A switched VCC is an on-demand connection which requires a call control signaling for setup and tearing down
• A semipermanent VCC is one that is of long duration and is set up by configuration or network management
action

Cell sequence integrity

• The sequence of transmitted cells within a VCC is preserved

Traffic parameter negotiation and usage monitoring

• Traffic parameters can be negotiated between a user and the network for each VCC
• The network monitors the input of cells to ensure that the negotiated parameters are not violated
 ITU-T Recommendation I.150 lists the following characteristics of VPCs:

Quality of service (QoS)

Specified by parameters such as cell loss ratio and cell delay variation

Characteristics
Virtual Path
Switched which
A switched VPC is an on-demand connection and semipermanent VPCs VPC is one that is of long duration
A semipermanent
requires a call control signaling for setup and tearing and is set up by configuration or network management
down action

Cell sequence integrity

The sequence of transmitted cells within a VPC is preserved

Traffic parameter negotiation and usage monitoring

Traffic parameters can be negotiated between a user The network monitors the input of cells to ensure that
and the network for each VPC the negotiated parameters are not violated

Virtual channel identifier restriction within a VPC

One or more virtual channel identifiers, or numbers, may not be available to the user of the VPC but may be
reserved for network use
 Control Signaling
VCCs
 Semi-permanent VCCs may be used for
user-to-user exchange
 No control signaling is required
 If there is no preestablished call control
signaling channel, then one must be set
up
 Meta-signaling channel
 The meta-signaling channel can be used
to set up a VCC between the user and
the network for call control signaling
 User-to-network signaling virtual channel
 The meta-signaling channel can also be
used to set up a user-to-user signaling
virtual channel
 Such a channel must be set up within a
preestablished VPC
VPCs
 Can be established on a semi-
permanent basis by prior
agreement
 No control signaling is required
 VPC establishment/release may
be customer controlled
 The customer uses a signaling VCC
to request the VPC from the network
 VPC establishment/release may
be network controlled
 The network establishes a VPC for its
own convenience
 The path may be network-to-network,
user-to-network, or user-to-user
 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Generic flow control Virtual path identifier

Virtual path identifier
Virtual path identifier

Virtual channel identifier 5-octet Virtual channel identifier

header
Payload type CLP Payload type CLP

Header error control Header error control

53-octet
cell
Information field Information field
(48 octets) (48 octets)

(a) User-Network Interface (b) Network-Network Interface

Figure 9.17 ATM Cell Format

 Table 9.2
Payload Type (PT) Field Coding

PT Coding Interpretation
000 User data cell, congestion not experienced, SDU-type = 0
001 User data cell, congestion not experienced, SDU-type = 1
010 User data cell, congestion experienced, SDU-type = 0
011 User data cell, congestion experienced, SDU-type = 1
100 OAM segment associated cell
101 OAM end-to-end associated cell
110 Resource management cell
111 Reserved for future function

SDU = Service Data Unit

OAM = Operations, Administration, and Maintenance
 Summary
 Switched  Packet-switching
communications principles
networks  Switching technique
 Packet size
 Circuit-switching  External network interface
networks  Comparison of circuit
 Circuit-switching switching and packet
switching
concepts
 Space division
 Asynchronous transfer
switching mode
 ATM logical connections
 Time-division switching
 ATM cells
 Softswitch architecture