KNOCKING AND

ANTI-KNOCKING
AGENTS
Prepared and Presented by:
Saad Ahamed [10BME1062]
Arun Kumar [10BME1023]
 THE PRINCIPLE OF IC ENGINE
In order to explain how a ic engine works we
must first look at the four-stroke cycle.

The four stages of the

cycle commonly known
as:
•Suction stroke
•Compression stroke
•Expansion stroke
•Exhaust stroke
Suction (charge exchange stroke)
In a diesel or petrol
injection engine, the
piston moves down
and air is drawn
through the intake
valve. In a carburettor
petrol engine, the air is
mixed with petrol.
 Compression (power stroke)

As the piston
moves back up,
the air or
petrol/air
mixture is
compressed.
 Expansion (power stroke)
In the carburettor or
injected petrol engine, the
fuel/air mixture is ignited by
a spark plug; in the diesel
engine, fuel is injected
under high pressure and
the mixture ignites
spontaneously. In either
case, the explosion drives
the piston downwards.
 Exhaust (charge exchange stroke)
The exhaust gas is expelled through the
exhaust valve when the piston moves up.
In a turbocharged engine, the air is pre-
compressed before being supplied to the
cylinder during the suction stroke.
Because it is at a higher pressure, a
greater mass of air is held in the
combustion chamber, which means that
fuel is burned more efficiently. This
increases the engine’s power output,
giving more torque and a higher top
speed compared to a normally aspirated
engine of the same swept volume, and
reduces emissions.
 Internal
Combustion
Engine
 KNOCKING
Due to presence of
some constituents in
the gasoline used, the
rate of oxidation
becomes so great that
the last portion of the
fuel-air mixture gets
ignited instantaneously,
producing an explosive
violence, known as
knocking.
 KNOCKING MECHANISM
•In IC engines, the gasoline and air drawn into the cylinder is
compressed by the piston and ignited by an electric spark.

•As the flame front travels towards feed end of the

combustion
chamber, rapidly expanding combustion gases, compress the
remaining un-burnt fuel ahead of flame front and raise its
temperature.

•If the flame front travels rapidly at optimum speed, the

combustion of un-burnt fuel takes place but smoothly.

•If the flame front travels too slowly, the entire last portion of
the fuel-air mixture may get heated up beyond its ignition
temp. and undergo instantaneous explosive combustion. This
produces thermal shock wave which hits cylinder walls and
piston. This result in emitting of characteristic rattling sound
called knocking.
 COMPRESSION RATIO
•The efficiency of power production in spark ignited
internal combustion (IC) engines is related to the
compression ratio (CR).
•The CR is the ratio of the cylinder volume (V1) at
the end of the suction stroke to the volume (V2) at
the end of the compression stroke of the piston.
This ratio is always greater than one, since V1
being greater than V2.
•Theoretically, the power output and efficiency of an
IC engine should increase continuously with
increase in the CR.
•The mechanism of the chemical reactions that lead
to knocking is not clear.
•It is believed that chemical reactions that are of
importance are cracking and the oxidation of the
hydrocarbons.
Probably the reactions proceed by a chain reaction.
 KNOCKING TENDENCY
•It was recognized that the structures of the fuel hydrocarbons determines
largely their knocking tendency.
•The tendency to knock decreases as follows:
straight chain paraffins>branched paraffins>olefins>cyclo-
alkanes>aromatic
•The tendency to knock depends not only on the fuel used but also on the
engine design, location of plug, etc., and also upon the running
conditions.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF GASOLINE KNOCK

• It increases the fuel

consumption.
• It results in decreased
power output.
• It causes mechanical
damage by overheating of
the cylinder parts.
• The driving becomes
rather unpleasant.
MINIMIZING KNOCKING IN IC ENGINES

• By a suitable change in
engine design.
• By using critical
compression ratio.
• By using high rating
gasoline.
• By using anti-knocking
agents.
 OCTANE NUMBER
• Graham Edger proposed an arbitrary
scale, octane rating, in order to express the
anti-knock properties of gasoline's.
• Among alkanes, n-heptane knocks
severely, while under identical conditions,
2,2,4-trimethyl pentane (iso-octane) has a
high resistance to knocking.
• For the scale proposed to indicate the
anti-knock properties of gasoline, n-heptane
was arbitrarily assigned an octane number
of zero and iso-octane was arbitrarily
assigned a value of 100.

By blending these two hydrocarbons in various proportions, primary reference fuels

were prepared.
• In the same engine under the same set of conditions and the same critical CR,
various blends of the n-heptane and iso-octane are burnt and the percentage of iso-
octane by volume in blend that knocks under these conditions is the octane number
of the gasoline.
 Hydrocarbon Octane Number
Heptane 0
2-Methylheptane 23
Hexane 25
2-Methylhexane 44
1-Heptene 60
Pentane 62
1-Pentene 84
Butane 91
Cyclohexane 97
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane (isooctane) 100
Benzene 101
Toluene 112
 ANTI KNOCKING
The compounds which are mixed
with IC fuels tend to improve
octane number are called Anti
Knocking Compounds.

EX: Anti Knocking properties of

gasoline are increased by adding
“TEL”[tetra ethyl lead].
 TETRA ETHYL LEAD
•About 0.5 ml of TEL per liter is added for motor fuel
and about 1 ml of TEL per liter is generally added for
aviation petrol.
•It is believed that during combustion of gasoline, TEL
forms Pb and PbO.
•These species act as free-radical chain inhibitors and
thus curtail the propagation of the explosive chain
reaction and thereby minimizing knocking.
•If TEL alone is used, the species Pb and PbO may get
deposited on engine parts and cause mechanical
damage.
The vapours of Pb and PbO may pollute the air.
In order to minimize the air pollution and damage to
engine parts, TEL is always used along with ethylene
dibromide or ethylene dichloride.
•The functions of these ethylene derivatives is to
convert the less volatile Pb and PbO into more volatile
PbBr2 or PbCl2 which escapes into air along with
exhaust gases.
 CETANE NUMBER
•The suitability of diesel fuel
deteremined by its cetane value
which is a percentage of hexadecane
in a mixture of hexadecane and 2-
methyl naphthalene which has sane
ignition characteristics as a diesel
fuel in the question .
•The cetane number of a diesel
fuel can be raised by addition of
small quantity of certain pre-
ignition dopes like ethyl
nitrite,isoamyl nitrite,acetone
peroxide..etc.
 CETANE RATING
Cetane Rating: Measure of the ignition delay of the fuel and
ability to self-ignite.
Cetane Number = 1*(Percentage of Cetane) + 0.15*(Percentage
of heptmethynonae))
Ignition Delay = Physical Delay + Chemical Delay
Premix Combustion. Combustion of all fuel that is already mixed
when combustion
starts. Very high rate of pressure rise.
Diffusion Combustion. Combustion as rich fuel core mixes with air
Late Burning. Evaporation of cylinder walls etc.
 Low Cetane Number
Late Burning during expansion stroke, difficult starting, white
smoke
High Cetane:
Ignition delay too short, more diffusion combustion with lower
cycle efficiency, incomplete
combustion, black smoke

• Physical Delay
– Temperature and density of air in cylinder
– Atomization, penetration and shape of injection spray
– Fuel properties such as volatility and viscosity which affect spray
characteristics.
– Turbulence which increases mixing
Ignition Delay decreases with:
• Increase in Temperature
– Compression ratio, inlet air temp, coolant temp, load, incorrect injection
timing
• Increase in Pressure
– Inlet Pressure, compression ratio
• Increase in speed
– Turbulence, decreases physical delay
– Compression Temp Increases, decreases physical and chemical delay
• Increase in Cetane
– Reduce Chemical delay
 DIESEL FUELS
•The usual diesel engine fuel is
diesel oil or gas oil,a fraction
obtained 250-320 degree Celsius
during the fractional distilation of
crude petroleum.
•This oil,generally,contains 85%
carbon and 12% hydrogen.
•Its calorific value is about
11,000kcal/kg.
•Ignition quality order among hydrocarbon constituents of a diesel fuel is
as follows:
n-alkanes>naphthalenes>alkenes>branched alkenes>aromatics.
•Thus hydrocarbons which are poor gasoline fuels are quite good diesel
fuels.
 DIESELS
High Speed Low Speed
 In a high speed diesel On the other hand ,low
engine,the time lag in getting speed diesel requires cetane
the droplets heated to number of about 25.
ignition point is very
brief,about 1/500 th of a
second. Cetane number of medium
 Such diesel engines require
speed diesel is about 35.
diesel with cetane numbers
in excessof 45(upto 60).
 UNLEADED PETROL
•Petrol wherein the enhancement of
octane rating is accomplished without
the addition of lead compounds is
referred to as unleaded petrol.

•To improve its octane number,

Concentration of high octane
components (like isopentane,
isooctane, ethylbenzene, isopropyl
benzene, etc) is increased by the
process of reforming.

•Compounds like methyl tertiary butylether (MTBE) can also be added to

improve octane number of unleaded petrol. MTBE provides oxygen (of ether
group) for combustion of petrol in IC engines, thereby reducing considerably
the formation of peroxy compounds (which causes knocking).
 ADVANTAGES OF UNLEADED PETROL
•The harmful effects of discharge of
poisonous lead and its compounds
through the exhaust of automobiles is
avoided.
•One of the major advantages of using
unleaded petrol is that it permits the
attachment of a catalytic converter to the
exhaust pipe in automobiles.

Catalytic converter contains rhodium catalyst.

•It converts the toxic gases such as CO and NO to harmless CO2 and N2.
•It also oxidizes hydrocarbons into CO2 and H2O.
Leaded petrol cannot be used in automobiles equipped with catalytic converter as the
lead present poisons the catalyst thus destroying the active sites.