MODULE II:FRICTION AND WEAR

Contents:
Friction: Origin, friction theories, measurement
methods, friction of metals and non-metals.
Wear: Classification and mechanisms of wear,
delamination theory, debris analysis, testing
methods and standards. Related case studies
What is Friction?
We experience friction in day to day life when you walk we experience
friction, when we cycle we experience friction, when we drive we
experience friction. This is very common mode which we experience
every day.


Friction is the resistance to motion which is experienced whenever one
solid body slides over another.

The resistive force, which is parallel to the direction of motion is called
the 'friction force'. If the solid bodies are loaded together and a tangential
force is applied, then the value of the tangential force which is required
to initiate sliding is the 'static friction force'. The tangential force required
to maintain sliding is the 'kinetic (or dynamic) friction force'. Kinetic
friction is generally lower than static friction.

Friction is the contact resistance exerted by one body when the second
body moves or tends to move past the first body. Friction is a retarding
force that always acts opposite to the motion or to the tendency to
move.
 Static Friction

An object experiences static friction when the object is not
moving.

The friction increases as the applied force increases until
the block moves.

After the block moves, it experiences kinetic friction,
which is less than the maximum static friction.
Kinetic Friction
Kinetic Friction

Fluid friction

Fluid friction occurs between fluid layers that are moving
relative to each other. This internal resistance to flow is
named viscosity. In everyday terms, the viscosity of a fluid
is described as its "thickness". Thus, water is "thin",
having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a
higher viscosity. The less viscous the fluid, the greater its
ease of deformation or movement.

All real fluids (except superfluids: A superfluid can be a liquid or a
gas, but not a solid. For example, helium's freezing point is 1K (Kelvin) and
25 atmospheres of pressure, the lowest of any element, but the substance
begins exhibiting superfluid properties at offer some
about 2K.)
resistance to shearing and therefore are viscous. For
teaching and explanatory purposes it is helpful to use the
concept of an inviscid fluid or an ideal fluid which offers no
resistance to shearing and so is not viscous.

Lubricated friction

Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid
separates two solid surfaces.

Lubrication is a technique employed to reduce wear of
one or both surfaces in close proximity moving relative to
each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant
between the surfaces.

In most cases the applied load is carried by pressure
generated within the fluid due to the frictional viscous
resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the
surfaces. Adequate lubrication allows smooth continuous
operation of equipment, with only mild wear, and without
excessive stresses or seizures at bearings. When
lubrication breaks down, metal or other components can
rub destructively over each other, causing heat and
possibly damage or failure.
Skin friction

Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid
and the skin of the body, and is directly related to the area of
the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid.

Skin friction follows the drag equation and rises with the
square of the velocity.

Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer
around the object.

There are two ways to decrease skin friction: the first is to
shape the moving body so that smooth flow is possible, like
an airfoil. The second method is to decrease the length and
cross-section of the moving object as much as is practicable.
Internal friction

Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the
elements making up a solid material while it undergoes
deformation.

An internal force that resists the movement between the
particles of a material.

This potential internal movement can be due to either
external forces or change in temperature and deformation.

This friction force is called more precisely as static internal
friction sometimes, and it is different from the kinetic internal
friction force.

The static internal friction force acts against the shear
stress between the particles and tries to keep them
stationary and in place.

Historical background:

The science of Tribology (Greek tribos: rubbing) concentrates
on Contact Mechanics of Moving Interfaces that generally involve
energy dissipation. It encompasses the science fields
of Adhesion, Friction, Lubrication and Wear.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)) can be named as the father of
modern tribology. He studied an incredible manifold of tribological
subtopics such as: friction, wear, bearing materials, plain bearings,
lubrication systems, gears, screw-jacks, and rolling-element bearings.
150 years before Amontons' Laws of Friction were introduced, he had
already recorded them in his manuscripts. Hidden or lost for centuries,
Leonardo da Vinci's manuscripts were read in Spain a quarter of a
millennium later.

To the pioneers in tribology one counts besides Leonardo da Vinci
also Guillaume Amontons (1663-1705), John Theophilius
Desanguliers (1683-1744), Leonard Euler (1707-1783), and Charles-
Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806). These pioneers brought tribology to a
standard, and its laws still apply to many engineering problems today.
Some of their findings are summarized in the following three laws:
 Friction Theories applied to tribology
Leonardo da Vinci was the first to perform a
systematic analysis of friction. He formulated the
laws of friction, but his works were not discovered
until recently. These laws are formulated for the
case of dry friction. There are 3 laws of friction:

Amontons’ First Law: The force of friction is directly
proportional to the applied load.

Amontons’ Second Law: The force of friction is
independent of the apparent area of contact.

Coulomb’s Law of Friction: Kinetic friction is independent
of the sliding velocity.
Amontons
The normal load and friction force at a sliding contact are
shown in Fig. The laws of friction were first stated by
Amontons and are known as Amontons’ laws

1. Friction force is proportional to normal load, i.e. F=μN

where the constant μ is known as the coefficient of friction.
2. F is independent of the apparent area of contact.
These ‘laws’ are generally true, but there are exceptions. The force to
initiate sliding is known as the static friction force and that to maintain
sliding is known as the kinetic or dynamic friction force.
The kinetic friction force is generally lower than the static one, so that
one needs to define two friction coefficients, the static coefficient μs and
the kinetic coefficient μk. Unless stated otherwise, μ is taken to mean the
kinetic coefficient.
Coulomb’s Law of Friction

The law states that for two dry solid surfaces sliding against
one another, the magnitude of the kinetic friction exerted
through the surface is independent of the magnitude of the
velocity (i.e., the speed) of the slipping of the surfaces
against each other.

Note that the direction of the kinetic friction does depend on
the direction of the velocity -- it is precisely the opposite
direction.

Coulomb conducted hundreds of experiments, and over a
broad range of conditions observed:

Frictional force is approximately independent of contact
area. Frictional force is approximately independent of
velocity magnitude. Coefficient of friction depends on pairs
of materials.
 This contact force comprises a normal component Fn, perpendicular
to the contact plane between the two solids, and a tangential
component Ft, belonging to the contact plane.

C.A. Coulomb shows, from very precise experiments, that the slip
between the two solids occurs if Fn and Ft verify the proportionality
relationship: Ft = μ Fn, 

where μ is the coefficient of friction that characterizes the condition
of the two surfaces in contact.

As long as the force Ft is less than μ Fn (the contact force is said to
remain within the Coulomb cone), sliding does not occur, and is
referred to as adhesion between the two solids.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction
Advantages of friction:
 Friction enables us to walk freely.
 It helps to support ladder against wall.
 It becomes possible to transfer one form of energy to
another.
 Objects can be piled up without slipping.
 Breaks of vehicles work due to friction.
Disadvantages of friction:
 It always resists the motion, so extra energy is required to
overcome it.
 It causes wear and tear of machines.
 It decreases the life expectancy of moving parts of vehicles.
Since friction is very useful in some cases while harmful in
some cases, friction is called a necessary evil.
Methods of increasing friction:
In many cases, friction is very useful. So, enough
friction is required and hence become necessary to
increase the friction. Some of the common methods
of increasing friction are:
•Create a “rougher” or more adhesive point of contact.
•Press the two surfaces together harder.

•Remove lubrication between the two surfaces.

•Remove wheels or bearings to create sliding friction.

•Increase the fluid viscosity.

Methods of reducing friction:
In many cases, friction is very harmful. So, friction
needs to be reduced.
Some of the ways of reducing frictions are:
 Polishing or smoothing the surfaces.

 By the use of lubricants which increases the

smoothness of the surface.

Giving streamlines shape to submarines, jets etc

 By using ball bearing in wheels.

Applications
Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines.

Automobile brakes inherently rely on friction, slowing a
vehicle by converting its kinetic energy into heat. Incidentally,
dispersing this large amount of heat safely is one technical
challenge in designing brake systems.

Rail adhesion refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the
rails.

Road slipperiness is an important design and safety factor for
automobiles
 Split friction is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to
varying friction on either side of a car.
 Road texture affects the interaction of tires and the driving surface.

Friction is used to heat and ignite matchsticks (friction
between the head of a matchstick and the rubbing surface of
the match box).