Loop Avoidance Training Center

• 1 – What is Carrier Wave?

• 2 – Understanding Modulation and Demodulation
• 3 – Analog Modulation(AM, FM, PM)
• 4 – Digital Modulation.(FSK, ASK, PSK)
• 5 – Wave Propagation
 1 - What is Carrier Wave?
• Carrier Waves
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves that move at the speed of light
in a sine wave formation and can be used to carry a message over a
distance. They can have different frequencies which describes how fast
they are moving up and down which is measured in cycles per second or
hertz. Carrier waves with different frequencies have different properties.
For example, light waves are visible to the naked eye but cannot travel
through walls. Radio waves (especially those of lower frequency)
can penetrate walls and buildings as well as bending (diffraction) around
corners.
 Understanding Modulation and Demodulation
• Modulation - Process of changing an electrical signal, such as by
superimposing the signal's characteristics onto a carrier wave so
that it carries the information contained in the signal.
• Demodulation - At the receiver end this carrier wave is separated
from the signal to retrieve the information signal called
demodulation. 

• Two type of Modulation

– Analog Modulation (AM, FM, PM)
– Digital Modulation (ASK, FSK, PSK)
 Analog Modulation

• Amplitude Modulation (AM)

 Analog Modulation
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Analog Modulation
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Analog Modulation
• Phase Modulation (PM)
 Digital Modulation
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Digital Modulation
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 Digital Modulation
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Digital Modulation
 Wave Propagation
• Now that you have learned about some of the various characteristics of an RF signal,
it is important to have an understanding of the way an RF signal behaves as it moves
away from an antenna. As stated before, electromagnetic waves can move through a
perfect vacuum or pass through materials or other media. The way in which the RF
waves move—known as wave propagation —can vary drastically depending on the
materials in the signal’s path. Drywall will have a much different effect on an RF signal
than metal. What happens to an RF signal between two locations is a direct result of
how the signal propagates. When we use the term propagate, try to envision an RF
signal broadening or spreading as it travels farther away from the antenna.
• Wave Propagation
– Absorption
– Reflection
– Scattering
– Refraction
– Diffraction
– Attenuation (Loss)
– Free Space Path Loss (FSPL)
http://www.siversima.com/rf-calculator/free-space-path-loss-calculator
– Multipath
– Gain (Amplification)
 Absorption
• The most common RF behavior is absorption. If the signal does not bounce off an object,
move around an object, or pass through an object, then 100 percent absorption has
occurred. Most materials will absorb some amount of an RF signal to varying degrees.
Brick and concrete walls will absorb a signal significantly, whereas drywall will absorb a
signal to a lesser degree. Water is another example of a medium that can absorb a signal
to a large extent. Absorption can be a leading cause of attenuation.
 Attenuation (Loss)
• Loss, also known as attenuation, is best described as the decrease of
amplitude or signal strength. A signal may lose strength while on a wire or in
the air. On the wired portion of the communications (RF cable), the AC
electrical signal will lose strength due to the electrical impedance of coaxial
cabling and other components such as connectors. RF signal is radiated into
the air via the antenna, the signal will attenuate due to absorption, distance,
and the negative effects of multipath. You already know that as an RF signal
passes through different mediums, the signal can be absorbed into the
medium, which in turn causes a loss of amplitude. Different materials typically
yield different attenuation results.
 Reflection
• One of the most important RF propagation behaviors to be aware of is reflection.
When a wave hits a smooth object that is larger than the wave itself, depending
upon the media, the wave may bounce in another direction. This behavior is
categorized as reflection. An analogous situation could be a child bouncing a ball
off a sidewalk and the ball changing direction. Depicts a laser beam pointed at a
single small mirror. Depending on the angle of the mirror, the laser beam bounces
or reflects off into a different direction. RF signals can reflect in the same manner
depending on the objects or materials the signals encounter.

There are two major types of reflections: sky wave reflection and microwave reflection. Sky wave reflection
can occur in frequencies below 1 GHz where the signal has a very large wavelength.
 Scattering
• Scattering can most easily be described as multiple reflections.
These multiple reflections occur when the electromagnetic signal’s
wavelength is larger than pieces of whatever medium the signal is
passing through.
 Refraction
• RF signals being absorbed or bounced (via reflection or scattering), if certain
conditions exist, an RF signal can be bent in a behavior known as refraction. A
straightforward definition of refraction is the bending of an RF signal as it passes
through a medium with a different density, thus causing the direction of the wave
to change. RF refraction most commonly occurs as a result of atmospheric
conditions.
 Diffraction

• Not to be confused with refraction, another RF propagation behavior

exists that also bends the signal; it’s called diffraction. Diffraction is
the bending of an RF signal around an object (whereas refraction, as
you recall, is the bending of a signal as it passes through a medium).
Diffraction is the bending and the spreading of an RF signal when it
encounters an obstruction. The conditions that must be met for
diffraction to occur depend entirely on the shape, size, and material
of the obstructing object as well as the exact characteristics of the RF
signal, such as polarization, phase, and amplitude . Typically,
diffraction is caused by some sort of partial blockage of the RF signal,
such as a small hill or a building that sits between a transmitting radio
and a receiver. The waves that encounter the obstruction slow down
in speed, which causes them to bend around the object.
Diffraction
Diffraction
 Free Space Path Loss (FSPL)
• Due to the laws of physics, an electromagnetic signal will attenuate as it
travels despite the lack of attenuation caused by obstructions, absorption,
reflections, diffractions, and so on. Free space path loss is the loss of signal
strength caused by the natural broadening of the waves, often referred to
beam divergence. RF signal energy spreads over larger areas as the signal
travels farther away from an antenna, and as a result, the strength of the
signal attenuates.

http://www.siversima.com/rf-calculator/free-space-path-loss-calculator/
Free Space Path Loss (FSPL)
Free Space Path Loss (FSPL)
 Multipath
• Multipath is a propagation phenomenon that results in two or more paths of a signal arriving at a
receiving antenna at the same time or within nanoseconds of each other. Due to the natural
broadening of the waves, the propagation behaviors of reflection, scattering, diffraction, and refraction
will occur. A signal may reflect off an object or scatter, refract, or diffract. In an indoor environment,
reflected signals and echoes can be caused by walls, desks, floors, file cabinets, and numerous other
obstructions. In an outdoor environment, it could be a flat road, large body of water, building, or
atmospheric conditions. Therefore we have signals bouncing and bending in many different directions.
The principal signal will still travel to the receiving antenna, but many of the bouncing and bent signals
may also find their way to the receiving antenna. In other words, “multiple paths” of the RF signal
arrive at the receiver. It usually takes a little bit longer for the reflected signals to arrive at the receiving
antenna because they must travel a longer distance than the principal signal. The time differential
between these signals can be measured in millionths of a second (nanoseconds). multipath causes a
ghost effect with a faded duplicate image to the right of the main image. With RF signals, the effects of
multipath can be either constructive or destructive. Quite often they are very destructive. Due to the
differences in phase of the multiple paths, the combined signal will often attenuate, amplify, or
become corrupted.
• The four results of multipath are as follows:
Downfade This is decreased signal strength.
Upfade This is increased signal strength.
Nulling This is signal cancellation.
Data Corruption Interference can cause data corruption.
Multipath
Multipath
Multipath
 Gain (Amplification)

• Gain,also known as amplification, can best be described as the increase of

amplitude or signal strength. The two types of gain are known as active gain and
passive gain. A signal’s amplitude can be boosted by the use of external devices.
Active gainis usually caused by the use of an amplifier on the wire that connects
the transceiver to the antenna. The amplifier is usually bidirectional, meaning that
it increases the AC voltage both inbound and outbound. Active gain devices require
the use of an external power source. Passive gain is accomplished by focusing the
RF signal with the use of an antenna. Antennas are passive devices that do not
require an external power source.
• There are two very different tools that can be used to measure the amplitude of a
signal at even given point. The first, a frequency domain tool, can be used to
measure amplitude in a finite frequency spectrum. The frequency domain tool
used by WLAN engineers is also called a spectrum analyzer. The second tool, a time
domain tool, can be used to measure how a signal’s amplitude changes over time.
The conventional name for a time domain tool is an oscilloscope.
 Gain (Amplification)

RF Signal measurement tools = InSSIDer software

 Gain (Amplification)
Passive Gain = Antenna ( no need to use external power source )
• Active Gain
Active Gain = Wireless Booster or Wireless Amplifier ( Must be use external power source )