Research is a scientific

investigation of phenomena
which includes the collection,
presentation, analysis and
interpretation of facts that link
man’s speculation with reality.

Calmorin and Calmorin, 1995

Research is a systematic,
controlled and empirical
investigation about the
occurrence of a certain
phenomena guided by theories
and hypotheses and the
presumed relations of these
phenomena.
Kerlinger, 1981
Research is from the french
word “cerchier” to seek or
search and “re” means again
and signifies replications of the
search.
Webster defines it as a studious
inquiry or examination,
investigation and experimentation
aimed at discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of
accepted theories, laws in the light
of new facts or practical application
for such new or revised theories or
laws.
Barr defines it as any systematic
search for understanding limited
to a particular subject that for
purposes of investigation has
been cast in problematic form
and formally defined.
Treece and Treece say research
is in the broadest sense is an
attempt to gain solutions to
problems. It is the collection of
data in a rigorously controlled
situations for the purpose of
prediction and explanation.
Research is considered to a
formal , systematic and
intensive process of carrying
on a scientific analysis for
the purpose of discovering
and development of an
organized body of knowledge.
-Best
Treach describes research as
essentially a problem-solving
process, a systematic,
intensive study toward fuller
scientific knowledge of the
subject studied.
Research discover answers to
questions through the
application of scientific
procedures that have been
developed to increase the
likelihood that information
gathered will be relevant,
reliable and unbiased.
-Claire, Seltiz
 Research is an honest, scientific
investigation undertaken for the
purpose of discovering new facts or
establishing a new relationships
among facts already known which
will contribute to the present body
of knowledge and can lead to an
effective solution of existing
problems.
-CRPNS
Importance of Research

- Professionalism
-Accountability
-Social Relevance of
Research
-Research and Decision
Making
The Consumer-Producer Continuum of Research
- Consumers
-Producers
-In Between

*participation in journal club

*attending prof. conferences
*incorporate research finding
*assist in data collection
*evaluate completed research
*review propose methods of gathering info
* collaborate in the dev of idea for research
project
Sources of Knowledge

- Tradition

- Authority

-Logical Reasoning

-Disciplined Research
Ontologic Assumption
(What is the nature of reality?)

Positivists Paradigm
- Reality exists; there is a real
world driven by natural causes.

Naturalistic Paradigm
-Reality is multiple and subjective,
mentally constructed by
individuals.
Epistemologic Assumption
(How is the inquirer related to those being
researched?)

Positivist Paradigm
-Inquirer is independent from those being
researched; the findings as not influenced
by the researcher.

Naturalist Paradigm
-The inquirer interacts with those being
researched; finding are the creation of the
interactive process.
Axiologic Assumption
(What is the role of values in the inquiry?)

Positivist Paradigm
-Values and biases are to be held in check;
objectivity is sought.

Naturalistic Paradigm
-Subjectivity and values are inevitable and
desirable.
Methodologic Assumption
(How is knowledge obtained?)

Positivist Paradigm
-Deductive processes
-Emphasis on discrete, specific concepts
-Verification of researcher’s hunches
-Fixed design
-Tight controls over contexts
-Emphasis on measured, quantitative information; statistical
analysis
-Seeks Generalization

Naturalistic Paradigm
-Inductive Processes
-Emphasis on entirety of some phenomenon, holisitc
-Emerging interpretations grounded in participant’s
experiences
-Flexible Design
-Emphasis on Narrative information, qualitative analysis
-Seeks patterns
Quantitative Research is the investigation of
phenomena that lead themselves to precise
measurements and quantification, often
involving a rigorous and controlled design.

Quantitative Analysis in the manipulation of

numeric data through Statistical procedures
for he purpose of describing phenomena and
assessing the magnitude and reliability of
relationships among them.
Qualitative Research is the investigation of
phenomenon, typically in an in-depth and
holistic fashion, through the collection of
narrative materials using a flexible research
design.

Qualitative Analysis refers to the organization

and interpretation of nonnumeric data for the
purpose of discovering important underlying
dimension and patterns of relationships.
BASIC RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY
1. The Study
2. Phenomena, Concepts, and Constructs
3. Theories and Conceptual Models
4. Variables
a. Continuous, Discrete, and Categorical Variables
b. Active Versus Attribute Variables
c. Dependent Versus Independent Variables
d. Heterogeneity
e. Operational Definitions of Variables
5. Data
6. Relationships
7. Research Control
Major Steps in A Quantitative Study
1. Phase 1: The Conceptual Phase
a. Step 1: Formulating and Delimiting the
Problem
b. Step 2: Reviewing the Related Literature
c. Step 3: Defining the Theoretical
Framework
d. Step 4: Formulating Hypotheses
2. Phase 2: The Design and Planning Phase
a. Step 5: Selecting a Research Design
b. Step 6: Identifying the Population to be Studied
c. Step 7: Specifying Methods to Measure the Research
Variables
d. Step 8: Designing the Sampling Plan
e. Step 9: Finalizing and Reviewing the Research Plan
f. Step 10: Conducting the Pilot Study and Making
Revisions
3. Phase 3: The Empirical Phase
a. Step 11: Collecting the Data
b. Step 12: Preparing the Data for Analysis
4. Phase 4: The Analytic Phase
a. Step 13: Analyzing the Data
b. Step 14: Interpreting the Results
5. Phase 5: The Dissemination Phase
a. Step 15: Communicating the Findings
b. Step 16: Utilizing the Findings
Activities in a Qualitative Study
1. Conceptualizing and Planning a
Qualitative Study
2. Conducting the Qualitative Study
3. Disseminating Qualitative Findings
 Research Purposes and Research Questions
Purpose Types of Questions: Quantitative Types of Questions: Qualitative
Research Research

Identification What is the phenomenon?

Description How prevalent is the phenomenon?
How often does the phenomenon
occur?
What are the characteristics of the
phenomenon?
What is its name?
What are the dimensions of the
phenomenon?
What variations exist?
What is important about the
phenomenon?

Exploration What factors are related to the What is the full nature of the
phenomenon? phenomenon?
What are the antecedents of the What is really going on here?
phenomenon? What is the process by which the
phenomenon evolves or is
experienced?
Explanation What are the measurable How does the phenomenon work?
associations between phenomena? Why does the phenomenon exist?
What factors caused the What is the meaning of the
phenomenon? phenomenon?
Does the theory explain the How did the phenomenon occur?
phenomenon?
Purpose Types of Questions: Types of Questions:
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Prediction and control What will happen if we alter a

phenomenon or introduce an
intervention?
If phenomenon X occurs, will
phenomenon Y follow?
How can we make the
phenomenon happen or alter its
nature or prevalence?
Can the occurrence of the
phenomenon be controlled?
 Key Terms Used in Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Concept Quantitative Term Qualitative Term

Person contributing Subject -

information Study participant Study participant
Respondent Informant
Person undertaking the study Researcher Researcher
Investigator Investigator
Scientist _
That which is being _ Phenomena, topics
investigated Concepts Concepts
Constructs _
Variables
System of organizing Theory, theoretical Theory
concepts framework _
Conceptual framework,
conceptual model
Information Data (numeric values) Data (narrative descriptions)

Connections between Relationships (cause-and- Patterns of association

concepts effect, functional)
 Examples of Research Questions From the Research Literature

Research Question Variables or Concept

Quantitative Studies

How do children’s preoperative focus of attention Children’s focus of attention (IV)

on the stress of surgery relate to their Preoperative coping (DV)
preoperative coping? (La Montagne, Johnson,
Hepworth, & Johnson, 1997)
What is the relationship between anger Anger frequency, intensity, and suppression (IV)
frequency, intensity, and suppression and blood Blood pressure (DV)
pressure among women? (Thomas, 1997)

Qualitative Studies

How do recently graduated nurses describe Perceptions of nursing care provided to culturally
nursing care provided to culturally diverse clints diverse clients
in hospital settings? (Kirkham, 1998)
Among those responsible for selecting a nursing
home for an elderly family member or friend, why
and how does the decision to institutionalize get
ade? (McAuley, Travis, & Safewright, 1997)
 Examples of Simple and Complex Hypotheses

Hypotheses Independent Variable Dependent Variable Simple Complex

Older patients are at Age of patients Falling behavior Simple

higher risk of
experiencing a fall than
younger patients.
Infants born to heroin- Addiction versus Birthweight of infant Simple
addicted mothers have nonaddiction of
lower birthweights than mother
infants with no addicted
mothers
Structured preoperative Timing of nursing Patients’ pain perceptions; Complex
support is more effective intervention requests for analgesics
in reducing surgical
patients’ perceptions of
pain and requests for
analgesics than
structured postoperative
support

Positive health practices Self-esteem; social Health practices Complex

are favorably affected by support
high self-esteem and
greater amounts of social
support.
Sources of Research Problems

-Experiences
-Literature- published research
reports
-Social Issues

-Gaps Between Ideal and Practice

-Theory

-Ideas From External Sources

Development and Refinement of Research Problems

-Selecting the Topic

-Narrowing the Topic
-Evaluating Research
Problems
a. Significance of the Problem
b. Researchability of the Problem
c. Feasibility of Addressing the Problem
- Time and Timing
- Cooperation of Others
- Facilities And Equipment
- Money
- Experience of the Researcher
- Ethical Considerations
Testing Hypothesis

-an inductive hypothesis is a generalization based on

observed relationship. Patterns, trends or associations
are observed and uses this as a basis for tentative
explanation or prediction.
-deductive hypothesis has a starting point of theories
that are applied to particular situations.
-a workable hypothesis states a relationship between
two or more variables and is capable of empirical
testing.
Directional hypothesis is one that specifies the expected
the expected direction of the relationship
. between
variables.
-nondirectional hypothesis does not stipulate the
direction of the relationship.
 Term Example

Topic or focus Absenteeism and tardiness among employees

Research problem Absenteeism is one of the problems that management faces even before
and to date there is no effective solution was sought yet to minimize or
totally solve the problem.

Statement of purpose The purpose of the study is to test an intervention to reduce if not to solve
totally absenteeism and tardiness among employees. The intervention
thought of is “Cash Incentive Program”.

Research Question What is the relative effectiveness of Cash Incentive Program in reducing or
solving absenteeism and tardiness among employees?
 Term Example

Hypotheses There is no significant difference in the rate of absenteeism and tardiness

among employees before and after the implementation of Cash
Incentive Program

Aims or objectives This study seeks to accomplish the following objectives: (1) to design a Cash
Incentive Program that would reduce absenteeism and tardiness among
employees, (2) to determine the rate of absenteeism and tardiness among
employees before and after the implementation of Cash Incentive Program,
(3) to determine the relative effectiveness of the program.
Statement of the Problem

This is study will determine the relative effectiveness of Cash Incentive

Program in reducing or solving absenteeism and tardiness among
employees of XXX, Dimahanapan City.

Specifically, the following questions will be answered:

1. What is the profile of the employees of XXX in terms of:
a. Sex
b. Age
c. Civil status
d. Number of children if married
e. Employment status
f. Number of years in the organization
g. Educational qualification
h. Position
i. Monthly Income
j. Other sources of income
h. Place of residence
2.What is the rate of absenteeism and tardiness before the
implementation of the CIP?
3.What is the rate of absenteeism and tardiness after the
implementation of the CIP?
4.Is there a significant different in the rates of absenteeism and
tardiness of the employees before and after the implementation of
CIP?

A good research problem is…

Interesting
Innovative
Cost-efficient
Relevant to the needs and problems of people
Measurable and time-bound
Relevant to government’s thrusts
Methods and Design of Research

. Descriptive Design –provides facts for scientific

judgments, provides knowledge about objects and persons, closer
observation on practices, behavior procedures
a. Descriptive Survey
b. Descriptive Normative
c. Descriptive Status
d. Descriptive Analysis
e. Descriptive Classification
f. Descriptive Evaluative
g. Descriptive Comparative
h. Correlational Survey
i. Longitudinal Survey

Experimental Design – a problem solving approach

a. Single group
b. Two group
c. Two-pair Group
d. Parallel-group
 Counter-balanced or Latin Square
 Complete randomized
 Randomized complete block design
 Correlational design
 Pre-test-post-test design

Qualitative Research Designs

a. Historical – chronological or thematic
b. Ethnographic – focuses on culture
c. Case Study - based on the perspective of the participant
d. Phenomenology – base on how people experience a
particular phenomenon
 Part of Research Report
 Introduction
 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework
 Statement of the Problem
 Assumptions/ Hypothesis
 Significance of the Study
 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
 Definition of Terms
 Review of Literature and Studies
 Methods and Procedures
 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data
 Summary of Findings, Conclusions and
Recommendations
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