Fundamental

of
Computers

Ritika Jasrotia
Senior Faculty
MERIT
What is a
Computer?
A computer is an electronic device used to process data.
• A computer can convert data into information that is
useful to people.
• A complete computer system includes four distinct
parts:

Hardware
Software
Data

User
 Hardware

• A computer's hardware consists of electronic

devices; the parts you can see and touch.

• The term "device" refers to any piece of hardware

used by the computer, such as a keyboard,
monitor, modem, mouse, etc.
 Soft war
e
• Software – also called programs – consists of organized
sets of instructions for controlling the computer.

• Some programs exist for the computer's use, to help it

manage its own tasks and devices.

• Other programs exist for the user, and enable the

computer to perform tasks for you, such as creating
documents.
 Dat
a
• Data consists of raw facts, which the computer can
manipulate and process into information that is
useful to people.
• Computerized data is digital, meaning that it has
been reduced to digits, or numbers. The computer
stores and reads all data as numbers.
• Although computers use data in digital form, they
convert data into forms that people can
understand, such as text, numerals, sounds, and
images.
 U ser
•
s
People are the computer's operators, or users.

• Some types of computers can operate without

much intervention from people, but personal
computers are designed specifically for use by
people.
 Computer Architecture

• Types of Hardware
• The CPU
• Memory
• How Memory is Measured
• Input and Output Devices
• Storage Devices
 Types of
Hardware
A computer's hardware devices are categorized as
follows:
• Processor
• Memory
• Input and output (I/O) devices
• Storage devices
 01101 1001111
0110101010 10000000
01001010
 CP
The procedure that
U The processor
transforms raw data is also called
into useful the “Central
information is called Processing
processing. This Unit (CPU)".
function is divided It manages
between the all devices
computer's processor and performs
and memory. the actual
processing of
data.

The CPU consists of one or more chips attached to the

computer's main circuit board (the motherboard).
 Memor
• y
Memory also consists of chips attached to the
motherboard.

• Memory holds data and program instructions as

the CPU works with them. This memory is called
Random Access Memory (RAM).

• The CPU can find any piece of data

in RAM, when it needs it for processing.

• RAM is volatile, meaning it holds data

only when the power is on. When the power
is off, RAM's contents are lost.
 How Memory is
Measured
• The smallest usable unit of measure for memory is
the bit
1 Nibble 4 bits
1 Byte 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) 1,024 bytes or
210 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) 1,024 KB or
1,024 * 1024 or 220 bytes
1 Gigabyte (GB) 1,024 MB or
1,024 * 1,024 * 1024 bytes or
230 bytes
1 Terabyte (TB) 1,024 GB or
1,024 * 1,024 * 1,024 * 1024 bytes or
240 bytes
 How Memory is
Measured
• Byte - the amount of memory required to hold
one character, like the letter A or the numeral 2.

• Computers work with larger chunks of data,

measured in multiple bytes, as shown
below:
Unit Approx. Value Actual Value
(bytes) (bytes)

Kilobyte (KB) 1,000 1,024

Megabyte (MB) 1,000,000 1,048,576
Gigabyte (GB) 1,000,000,000 1,073,741,824
Terabyte (TB) 1,000,000,000,000 1,099,511,627,776
 Input and Output Devices

• Input devices accept data and instructions from the

user or from another computer system. The keyboard
and mouse are examples of input devices.

• Output devices return processed data back to the

user or to another computer system. The printer and
monitor are examples.

• Communications devices (such as modems and

network interface cards) perform both input and
output, allowing computers to share
information.
 Storage Devices
• Storage devices hold data not currently being used
by the CPU. Data is commonly stored on a magnetic
or optical disk. Each type uses a special medium for
storing data on its surface.

• A disk drive is a device that reads data from and

writes data to a disk. Most new computers feature a
floppy disk drive, a hard disk drive, and an optical
disk drive.

• The most common optical storage devices are CD-

ROM and DVD-ROM drives.
 Soft w ar
e
• Software is a set of electronic instructions that tells
the computer how to do certain tasks. A set of
instructions is often called a program.

• When a computer is using a particular program, it is

said to be running or executing the program.

• The two most common types of programs are system

software and application software.
 Syst em
Soft ware
• System software exists primarily for the computer
itself, to help the computer perform specific
functions.

• One major type of system software is the operating

system (OS). All computers require an operating
system.

• The OS tells the computer how to interact with the

user and its own devices.

• Common operating systems include Windows, the

Macintosh OS, OS/2, and UNIX .
 Applicat ions
Soft w are
• Application software tells the computer how to
accomplish tasks the user requires, such as creating a
document or editing a graphic image.
• Some important kinds of application software are:

Word processing programs Spreadsheet software

Database management
Graphics programs
Web design tools and browsers
Communications programs
Entertainment and education
Presentation programs
Networking software
Internet applications
Utilities
Multimedia authoring
Computer Classifications

Computer can be classified on the basis of:

1. Technology – Analog & Digital

2. Size & Memory – Mini, Micro, Mainframe &
Supercomputer
3. Purpose – General Purpose and Special
Purpose
 Analog & Digital
Sr. Key Digital System Analog System
No.
Signal Type Digital System uses discrete signals as on/off Analog System uses continous signals with
1 representing binary format. Off is 0, On is 1. varying magnitude.
2 Wave Type Digital System uses square waves. Analog system uses sine waves.
Technology Digital system first transform the analog waves Analog systems records the physical
3 to limited set of numbers and then record waveforms as they are originally generated.
them as digital square waves.
Transmission Digital transmission is easy and can be made Analog systems are affected badly by noise
4 noise proof with no loss at all. during transmission.
Flexibility Digital system hardware can be easily Analog system's hardwares are not flexible.
5 modulated as per the requirements.
Bandwidth Digital transmission needs more bandwidth to Analog tranmission requires less bandwidth.
6 carry same information.
Memory Digital data is stored in form of bits. Analog data is stored in form of waveform
7 signals.
Power Digital system needs low power as compare to Analog systems consume more power than
8 requirement its analog counterpart. digital systems.

Best suited Digital system are good for computing and Analog systems are good for audio/video
9 for digital electronics. recordings.
10 Cost Digital system are costly. Analog systems are cheap.
Example Digital system are: Computer, CD, DVD. Analog systems are: Analog electronics, voice
11 radio using AM frequency.
Size & Memory
Super
Computers
Mainframe
Computers
Mini
Computers
Workstation
Micro Comput ers
(PC)
 How Comput ers Represent
Dat a
• Binary Numbers
• The Binary Number System
• Bits and Bytes
• Text Codes
 Binary
•
Numbers
Computer processing is performed by transistors,
which are switches with only two possible states: on
and off.

• All computer data is converted to a series of binary

numbers– 1 and 0. For example, you see a sentence as
a collection of letters, but the computer sees each
letter as a collection of 1s and 0s.

• If a transistor is assigned a value of 1, it is on. If it

has a value of 0, it is off. A computer's transistors can
be switched on and off millions of times each second.
 Base 10 Base 2
The Binary Number
0 0
Syst em
• To convert data into strings of 1 1
numbers, computers use the binary
number system.
2 10
3 11
• Humans use the decimal system 4
(“deci” stands for “ten”).
100
• The binary number system works the 5
same way as the decimal system, but 101
has only two available symbols (0 and
6
1) rather than ten (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, and 9). 110
7
111
 How Computers Represent Dat a - Bit s and
Bytes
A single unit of data is called a bit, having a value of 1
or 0.
• Computers work with collections of bits, grouping
them to represent larger pieces of data, such as letters
of the alphabet.
.

• Eight bits make up one byte. A byte is the amount of

memory needed to store one alphanumeric character.

• With one byte, the computer can represent one of 256

different symbols or characters.
1 01 10 1 01 01 1 01
How Comput ers Represent Dat a - Text
Codes
• A text code is a system that uses binary numbers (1s
and 0s) to represent characters understood by humans
(letters and numerals).

• An early text code system, called EBCDIC, uses eight-

bit codes, but is used primarily in older mainframe
systems.

• In the most common text-code set, ASCII, each

character consists of eight bits (one byte) of data.
ASCII is used in nearly all personal computers.

• In the Unicode text-code set, each character consists of

16 bits (two bytes) of data.
 Code
Character
00110000 0
00110001 1
00110010 2
Examplesfrom 00110011 3
t he ASCII Text
00110100 4
Code
00110101 5
01000001 A
01000010 B
01000011 C
01000100 D
01000101 E
 How Comput ers Process
Dat a
Where Processing Occurs:

• The Control Unit

• The Arithmetic Logic Unit
• Machine Cycles
• The Role of Memory in Processing
• Types of RAM
 CP
U
• Processing takes place in the PC's central processing
unit (CPU).

• The system's memory also plays a crucial role in

processing data.

• Both the CPU and memory are attached to the

system's motherboard, which connects all the
computer's devices together, enabling them to
communicate.
 The Cont rol U nit

The two main parts of a CPU are the control unit and the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

• The control unit directs the flow of data through the

CPU, and to and from other devices.

• The control unit stores the CPU's microcode, which

contains the instructions for all the tasks the CPU can
perform.
 The Arit hmet ic Logic U nit

• The actual manipulation of data takes place in the

ALU.

• The ALU can perform arithmetic and logic

operations.

• The ALU is connected to a set of registers—small

memory areas in the CPU, which hold data and
program instructions while they are being processed.
 ALU Operations List

Arithmetic Logical
Operations Operations
+ Add  ,  equal to, not equal to
 Subtract >, > greater than, not greater
than
x Multiply <, < less than, not less than
 Divide  ,  greater than or equal to,
not greater than or equal to
^ Raise by a power  ,  less than or equal to,
not less than or equal to
 Memor
y
• Memory & Storage
Memory is temporary.
Storage is permanent.
• Two types of Memory:
• Primary / Main Memory
• Secondary /Auxilliary Memory
• Primary Memory – RAM & ROM
Secondary Memory – Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, CD,
DVD, Pen Drive, etc
 Memor
y
• RAM stores data and program code needed by the
CPU. The contents of RAM change rapidly and often.
It is volatile memory.

• Read-only memory (ROM) is nonvolatile (or

permanent). It holds instructions that run the
computer when the power is first turned on.
• The CPU accesses each location in memory by using a
unique number, called the memory address.
 Types of
RAM
There are two basic types of RAM: static and dynamic

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips must be recharged

with electricity very frequently, or they will lose their
contents.

• Static RAM (SRAM) does not need to be recharged

as often as DRAM, and can hold its contents longer.

Another type of RAM, called flash memory, can store its

contents after power is turned off. Flash memory is used
in digital cameras to store pictures.
More RAM = Better Performance!
 Types of ROM
There are three basic types of ROM: PROM, EPROM
and E2PROM
• PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory
EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only
•
Memory
• E2PROM – Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory
 Cache
Memory
• Cache memory is high-speed memory that holds the
most recent data and instructions that have been
loaded by the CPU.

• Cache is located directly on the CPU or between the

CPU and RAM, making it faster than normal RAM.

• CPU-resident cache is called Level-1 (L1) cache.

External cache is called Level-2 (L2) cache.

• The amount of cache memory has a tremendous

impact on the computer's speed.
 Operat ing
syst em
• The operating system manages all the other
programs that run on the PC.

• The operating system provides services to programs

and the user, including file management, memory
management, and printing

• To provide services to programs, the OS makes

system calls—requesting other hardware and
software resources to perform tasks.
 Operating System - Multitasking
• Multitasking is the capability of running multiple
processes simultaneously.

• A multitasking OS lets you run multiple programs at

the same time.

• Through multitasking, you can do several chores at

one time, such as printing a document while
downloading a file from the Internet.

• There are two types of multitasking: cooperative and

preemptive.
 Operat ing Syst em - Managing
• Files
The operating system keeps track of all the files
on each disk.

• Users can make file management easier by creating

a hierarchical file system that includes folders and
subfolders arranged in a logical order.
 Operat ing syst em - Managing
Hardware
• The OS uses interrupt requests (IRQs) to maintain
organized communication with the CPU and other
pieces of hardware.

• Each hardware device is controlled by a piece of

software, called a driver, which allows the OS
to activate and use the device.

• The operating system provides the software

necessary to link computers and form a network.
 The User Interface
• Graphical User Interfaces
(GUIs)

• Command-Line
Interfaces
 Graphical U ser Int erfaces
(GU Is)
• Most modern operating systems, like Windows and
the Macintosh OS, provide a graphical user interface
(GUI).

• A GUI lets you control the system by using a mouse

to click graphical objects on screen.

• A GUI is based on the desktop metaphor. Graphical

objects appear on a background (the desktop),
representing resources you can use.
 Icons
Program

Deskrtuonpning
in a window
Window control buttons

Start menu

Start button

TDaisaklobga

rbox
.
Command-Line Interfaces
• Some older operating systems, such as DOS and
UNIX, use command-line interfaces.

• In a command-line interface, you type commands at a

prompt.

• Under command-line interfaces, individual

applications do not need to look or function the same
way, so different programs can look very different
 Dat abases and Dat abase
Management Systems

• The Difference between Databases and DBMSes

• Database Basics

• DBMSes Basics
 The Difference
bet ween Dat abases
• and DBMSes
A database is a repository for
collections of related data or
• A database management
facts. system (DBMS) is a
software tool that lets users add, view, and work
with the data in a database.

• Large databases and DBMS’ are commonly used by

companies, but many productivity applications are
built around database concepts.
 Dat abases and DBMSes - Dat abase
Basics
Databases use three main structures for organizing
data:
• Fields, which store various pieces of data related
to a single entity.

• Records, or collections of fields relating to an

entity.

• Tables, which are collections of related records.

The two primary types of databases are flat-file

databases (with only one table) and relational databases
(with multiple, related tables).
Field

Record
PROFESSIONAL ADDRESS BOOK

Table
 Dat abases and DBMSes - DBMS
Basics
A DBMS allows users to access and manage the data
collected in a database.

Data management tasks (all done through the DBMS)

can be divided into three categories:

• Entering data into the database.

• Sorting (rearranging) the data in the database.

• Obtaining subsets of the data for use.

 Comput er
Net work
A network connects computers so they can communicate,
exchange information, and share resources.

The main benefits of using a network are:

• Simultaneous Access

• Shared Peripheral Devices

• Personal Communication
The U ses of a Net work - Simult aneous
Access
• In organizations, many people may need to use the
same data or programs. A network solves this
problem.

• Shared data and programs can be stored on a

central network server. A server that stores
data files may be called a file server.

• Managers may assign access rights to users. Some

users may only be able to read data, others may be
able to make changes to existing files.
The Uses of a Net work -Shared
Peripheral Devices
• Because peripheral (external) devices like printers
can be expensive, it is cost-effective to connect a
device to a network so users can share it.

• Through a process called spooling, users can send

multiple documents (called print jobs) to a
networked printer at the same time. The
documents are temporarily stored on the server and
printed in turn.
The U ses of a Net work -
Personal Communication
• One of the most common uses of networks is for
electronic mail (e-mail).

• An e-mail system enables users to exchange written

messages (often with data files attached) across the
local network or over the Internet.

• Two other popular network-based communications

systems are teleconferencing and videoconferencing.
1 2 3 4
Type of Net works – Local Area
Net works (LANs)
• A LAN is a network whose computers are located
relatively near one another. The nodes may be
connected by a cable, infrared link, or small
transmitters.

• A network transmits data among computers by

breaking it into small pieces, called packets.

• Every LAN uses a protocol – a set of rules that

governs how packets are configured and
transmitted.
 Type of Net works – Wide
Area Net works (WANs)
• Multiple LANs can be connected
together using devices such as
bridges, routers, or gateways,
which enable them to share data.
• A WAN is two or more LANs connected together.
The LANs can be many miles apart.

• To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data

over leased high-speed phone lines or wireless links
such as satellites.
Type A

header
Payload Type A

header
Payload

ROUTER ROUTER
Significant
geographical
SERVER distance SERVER

Type A

header
Payload

LAN 1 LAN 2

WAN
Net works St ruct ure – Client / Server
Net works
• In client/server computing, individual nodes share the
processing and storage workload with the server.

• Client/server networks require specialized software

that enables nodes and the server to collaborate on
processing and storage, but no special type of network
hardware.
1 3

2
Net w orks St ruct ure – Peer-t o-Peer
Net works
• In a peer-to-peer network, all nodes have an equal
relation to one another.

• Each node usually has access to some resources on

other nodes, so users can share files, programs, or
devices on other users' systems.

• Some peer-to-peer networks use a server, but some

do not.
 Net w ork Topologies for
LANs
A network's topology is the layout of the cables and
devices that connect the nodes. The four most common
network topologies are:

• Bus. Each node is connected in series along a

single conduit.

• Star.All nodes are connected to a central hub.

• Ring. Nodes are connected in a circular

chain, with the conduit beginning and ending
at the same computer.

• Mesh. Each node has a separate

connection to every other node.
 Network Media and
• Hardware
In a network, the media are the wires, cables and other
means by which data travels from its source to its
destination.

• The most common network media are twisted-pair

cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and wireless
links.

• Each node uses a special device, called a network

interface card (NIC). The card connects to the
network media and controls the flow of data.

• NICs must use a common network technology to

communicate. The most popular network technologies
for LANs are Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Token Ring.
Word Processing Programs and Their
U ses
• Word processors provide tools for creating, editing,
and formatting text-based documents.

• You can use a word processor to create virtually any

type of document, from a simple letter to a complete
book.

• A word processor's formatting tools let you create

professional-quality documents easily.
Word processors provide tools to produce
professional looking documents.
 The Word Processor's
Int erfaceword processors offer a
Most Windows-based similar
set of tools, which you use to navigate, edit, and format
documents:

• Document area

• Menu bar

• Toolbars

• Rulers

• Scroll Bars

• Status Bar
Menu bar Toolbars

Ruler Scroll bar

Scroll boxes
Document area
Status bar
Spreadsheet Programs and Their
Uses
• Spreadsheets provide tools for working with
numerical data.

• You can use a spreadsheet program to create

budgets, balance sheets, and other types of
number- based documents.

• You can display your information in a traditional

row-and-column format, or in a chart.
 Report using
color and graphics

Classic row and column

format
 The Spreadsheet 's
•
Int erface
In a spreadsheet program, you work in a document
called a worksheet. You can collect multiple
worksheets into a file called a workbook.

• Most Windows-based word spreadsheets offer a

similar set of tools, including a formula bar, where
you can enter and edit data.

• Data is displayed in cells. A cell is the intersection

of a row and column.

• Each cell has a cell address – the combination of

the cell's column letter and row number.
Cell Menu bar
Tool bars Formula bar

Row

Column Scroll boxes

Status bar