GEOG 351: RESEARCH

METHODS IN
GEOGRAPHY I
Week 2:
Thursday, 27th January 2021

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Introduction to Geographic Research
Outline
Research – what is research?
Characteristics of Research
Types of Research
Scientific foundations of Geographic Research

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Research – what is it?
Research is the identification of a given societal problem and contributing to finding a

solution to that problem.

 Personal experiences – there is a problem within your local area

 Readings from documented sources ( e.g. recommendations for future research)

 News from the media etc.

 To contribute to finding solutions to solving that problem, researchers have to subject

the problem to scientific investigation.

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Characteristics of research
Critical: The need for example to critically scrutinise existing
literature on a given subject matter and then clearly identify gaps or
deficiencies in such studies.

Rigorous: Researchers must ensure that the procedures they use are
relevant, appropriate and justified.
 E.g. a strong justification for the need to “investigate the nexus between
climate change and food security in Northern Ghana”

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Characteristics of research cont’

Systematic: This means that, the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation should
follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way.
 E.g. A researcher focusing on “ the nexus between climate change and food security in North-west
Ghana” cannot develop “ research methodology” without reviewing literature and hence identifying
“research gap(s)- and formulating research objectives”.

Empirical: Conclusions drawn should be based upon evidence obtained from data
collected from real life experiences or observations.
 E.g. The researcher who focuses on “ the nexus between climate change and food security” cannot
draw any conclusion on the climate pattern in North-west Ghana without analysing any empirical
data (maybe secondary data from the Ghana Meteorological Agency –GMET) or primary data from
respondents.

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Types of research
Research can be classified on the basis of three perspectives:

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Classification based on purpose of the study
Exploratory research
 Much of social research is conducted to explore a topic, that is, to start to
familiarize a researcher with that topic.
 This approach typically occurs when a researcher examines a new interest or
when the subject of study itself is relatively new.
 For example, a researcher who tries to explore on the “ impacts of Covid-19 on
academic work in Ghana” . This is relatively a novel virus hence not much
literature has been documented on it.
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Classification based on purpose of the study
cont’

Descriptive research

 Many social scientific studies aim at describing situations and events. The

researcher observes and then describes what was observed (Barbie, 2003).

 E.g. a researcher describing farmers’ perceptions of climate variability and

change in North-west Ghana

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Classification based on purpose of the study
cont’
Explanatory research
 The third general purpose of social scientific research is to explain things.
 Descriptive studies answer questions of what, where, when, and how;
explanatory studies address questions of why (Barbie, 2003:99).
 E.g. a researcher who aims by the end of his study to understand “ why
smallholder farmers in North-west Ghana are adapting or not adapting to
climate variability and change via crop selection”.

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Classification based on purpose of the study
cont’
Correlational research

 It establishes the existence of a relationship, association or interdependence

between two or more aspects of a situation

 E.g. the relationship between maternal education and under-five mortality

differentials in Ghana.

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Classification based on data sought
Quantitative research
 This form of research generates largely quantitative statistical information.

 For example, what proportion of undergraduate students of KNUST perceive

that there is quality accommodation offered on campus?
 How is students’ perception of quality accommodation on KNUST socially
differentiated- sex, level of education, age, hall of residence, college, etc.?

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Classification based on data sought cont’
Qualitative research
 This type of research is used for the generation of in-depth information on a
given subject matter.
 For example, “ why are farmers persisting to cultivate some crops that give
them low yield under climate variability and change”

Mixed methods research- this basically a blend of the qualitative and

quantitative research techniques.

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Classification based on application of
study
Basic research
 Basic or pure research seeks to fill gaps in our knowledge and to advance the
frontiers of knowledge in the various academic disciplines.
 Essentially, it involves the asking and answering of questions that do not
involve immediate solutions of pragmatic problems
 That is we make recommendations in research outputs and some do not
receive policy attention.

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Classification based on application of
study cont’
Applied Research
 Applied research is one meant for the solution of problems of the community,
the state and the nation.
 It is generated not because of someone’s intellectual curiosity but because
some problem of society demands a solution.
 E.g., a team of medical practitioners at Korle-bu teaching hospital studying a
couple of Covid-19 patients to tailor their medical practice accordingly.

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The ‘Scientific’ View in Geography

Conventionally, geographical research projects have been presented as a

sequence of steps or procedures ( Haring and Lounsbury, 1983).

The justification being that geography was essentially a scientific

activity.
 That is a subject identifying research questions, testing hypotheses regarding
possible causal relationships and presenting the results with some sort of more
general normative statement or context (Clifford and Valentine, 2003).
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The ‘scientific’ View in Geography Cont’

 Steps in ‘scientific geographic research’

Literature suggests the following as the steps that were identified in ‘ scientific
geographic research’ (see e.g., Haring and Lounsbury, 1983).

Formulation of the research problem – the issue that a researcher worries about.
 Literature suggests that this takes the form of a researcher asking a question in a precise,
testable manner, and which factors in the spatial and temporal dimension of the work ( see
e.g., Clifford and Valentine, 2003).

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The ‘scientific’ View in Geography Cont’
Definition of hypotheses: the generation of one or more assumptions
which are used as benchmarks for investigation, and which are
scientifically tested by the researcher.
 Hypotheses are more or less intellectual guess on the outcome of a given
study.
Determination of the type of data to be collected- the units of
observation, the sample size, sampling techniques, and the data
elicitation tools.

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The ‘scientific’ View in Geography Cont’
Collection of Data – either primary from the field or secondary data.
May be daily rainfall and temperature data from the Ghana Meteorological
Agency on a given climatic station (s) in Ghana.
Ghana Demographic and Health Survey Data (e.g., 2008 edition) from the
Ghana Statistical Service (GSS).
 Processing and Analysis of the data – this involves the selection of
appropriate quantitative data analysis software applications and
presentation techniques.

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The ‘scientific’ View in Geography Cont’

Stating conclusions to either confirm/refute the proposed hypotheses

 Dominant acceptable approach of doing geographic research in the 1950s and

1960s (in particularly) when the quantitative revolution characterised the field

of geography (see e.g., Clifford and Valentine, 2003).

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Critique of the ‘scientific’ view in
Geography
Today, there is more recognition that the steps involved in doing
geographic research should be flexible.
In Human geography for example- the entire notion of a formalized
procedure or sequence would be considered unnecessary, and the
notion of normative (Clifford and Valentine, 2003).
Many human geographers now reject or are sceptical of scientific
approaches to human behaviour.
They rather prefer to adopt a more subjective approach to their
research.

George Dakurah (PhD) - dakurahg@yahoo.com

Steps in investigating a given societal
problem in Geography

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References

 Babbie, E. R. (2008). The basics of social research. Belmont, CA, Thomson/Wadsworth.

 Clifford, N. J., & Valentine, G. (2003). Key methods in geography. London, SAGE.

 Haring, L. L., and Lounsbury, J.F. (1983). Introduction to Scientific Geographical Research. Dubuque: W.C.

Brown.