Paradigm, Philosophical Bases of Qualitative Research

By: Group 2
Firda Khaerunisa (1808103013)
Sindy Anggraeni (1808103024)
Fatimatuzzahro (1808103033)
Introduction
The development of qualitative research can be traced back to two notable
contributors, The Discovery of Basic Theory: Strategies and applications were
published by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss. In 1978, Egon Guba published a
Naturalistic Inquiry Methodology in Educational Evaluation. Glaser and Straus's
book (1967) focused on developing a hypothesis (inductive method) for a social
problem that was under investigation, rather than testing the theory (deductive
approach). Guba (1978) write a manuscript that focused on what happens and is
found in a natural world setting without influencing or manipulating what is being
explored. Following these publications, qualitative analysis, also known as
qualitative inquiry, has been widely used in anthropology and sociology, and
other areas such as education, with various approaches.
Creswell (2014) said that qualitative research is described as "a method for
investigating and comprehending the significance that individuals or groups
ascribe to a social or human problem" (p.32). Qualitative research aims at
showing the significance of an event for those interested in how people describe
their own experiences, (Meriam & Tisdell, 2016). "How they form their
environments, and what significance they assign to their experiences" while
performing qualitative research. Braun and Clarke (2013) proposed another
explanation, claiming that qualitative research "used words as data, collected and
analyzed in all sort of ways" (p.3-4). On the other hand, qualitative research
explored the relationship between measured variables to test objective hypotheses.
Qualitative research may also be used to figure out "cause and effect, predict, or
describe the distribution of any attribute among a population."
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the qualitative research approached
incorporates several salient characteristics:
1. The research aims to understand the experiences that people have.
 2. The researchers are mainly the instrument for data collection and
interpretation.
3. The results of the study are inductively analyzed. This means that the
researcher generates explanations of concepts, hypotheses and theories
through the data.
4. A detailed description will be produced from multiple sources of data such
as documents, field notes, and interviews.
Discussion 
 What is paradigm?
The phrase paradigm is a Greek meaning design identified by a large number of
academics (Kivunja, 2017)]. According to (Ihwan 2015), stated that the applied
research paradigm is the fundamental belief in which theory will be built, which
influences how researchers see the world and determines perspectives and forms
of understanding about how things are interrelated. Paradigm, for example, is seen
as 'a way for researchers to see the environment that frames the topic' and affects
how researchers think about it (Hughes, 2010, p. 35). Paradigm is often defined as
"sets of faiths guiding the work" (Guba, 1990, p. 17). These are integrated into all
research in education (Brooke, 2013). It also suggests, "Through explicit or
implicit assumptions about how and what the social environment is to be studied,
all social scientists approach their subject" (Burrell, 1979, p. 1). (Fraser, 2004)
Further stated that the paradigm is "a range of assumptions about how problems
are specific and how they can be studied" (p. 59). Hughes (2010) also notes that
study has been subjected to a model or a particular way of "seeing and
understanding the world" ((Mukherji, 2015, p. 24)
Conceptually, paradigms are the basic assumptions that scientists believe and
determine how they perceive the phenomena they are studying. It can include
codes of ethics and world views, which influence the way scientists, think and
behave in the process of knowledge (Sulaiman, 2018). Paradigms reflect the
views and values of researchers in the world, how the world is defined and how
they operate. In connection with the study, the researchers will then direct their
thinking and beliefs about any problems examined. In other words, the adopted
paradigm guides the researchers' study, which involves procedures for data
collection and analysis. 
(Guba E. &., 1989) further indicated that the following are related to the research
paradigm: ontology, epistemology, and methodology. The opinions of (Hitchcock
1995, p. 21). Reflect these views, which states that "ontological assumptions lead
to epistemological assumptions with methodological consequences for the choice
of specific techniques of data collection." In other words, the explanation of
epistemology is limited to the ontology. The methodological explanation is
needed by the epistemological and ontological explanation of the study (Lincoln,
2013). Such an interpretation refers to the point that the various ontologies and
epistemologies a researcher adopts involve different methodologies (Cohen,
2000). 
 Qualitative Research Paradigms 
The qualitative research approach is a research method based on the philosophy of
post positivism. Post positivism philosophy is often referred to as the interpretive
and constructive paradigm. Viewing social reality as something holistic/whole,
complex, dynamic, full of meaning, and symptomatic relationships are interactive
(reciprocal = reciprocal). Design of naturalistic research processes are: 
 General topic
 General questions
 Information required
 Using data collection methods (observation, interview, documentation,
reading, consideration of time, cost, ability)
 Entering the field, Collecting data (making field notes, purposive
sampling, triangulation, verification). 
According to Kolakowski there are four the rules in the positivism
determine what is meant with the knowledge: a) rule of phenomenalism; b) rule of
nominalism; c) rule that refuses to call value judgments and normative statements
knowledge; d) belief in essential unity of scientific method. Sarantakos (1998)
argues that there are three main paradigms, namely positivistic, interpretive, and
critical (Sarantakos, 1998). The choice of paradigm has implications for selection
methodology and methods of data collection and analysis. Below is a summary of
three paradigm according to Sarantakos (1998).
1. Positivistic paradigm
In short, positivism is an approach adopted from science nature which
emphasizes the combination of numbers and deductive logic and the use of tools
quantitative in interpreting a phenomenon "objectively". This approach departs
from the belief that the legitimacy of a science and research comes from the use of
data measured appropriately, which is obtained through a survey / questionnaire
and combined with statistics and value-free / objective hypothesis testing
(Neumen, 2003). In that way, a phenomenon can be analyzed to then find the
relationship between the variables involved in therein. This relationship is a
correlation relationship or causal relationship. For positivism, social and natural
sciences use a common scientific basis, so that all scientific activities in the two
fields of science must use the same method alike in studying and searching for
answers and developing theories. The real world contains things that are repeated
in a certain order or order so that the law can be sought cause and effect. Thus, the
theory in this understanding is formed from a set of laws universally applicable.
Meanwhile, the research objective is to find laws. In this approach, a researcher
begins with a causal relationship general theory obtained from general theory.
Then, use his idea to improve explanation of these relationships in a more specific
context.
2. Interpretive paradigm
The interpretive approach comes from a German philosophy emphasizes
the role of language, interpretation and understanding in social science. This
approach focuses on the subjective nature of the social world and tries to
understand it from frame of mind for the object he is studying. So the focus is on
individual meaning and perception humans in reality not on independent realities
that are outside them. Humans are continuously creating their social reality in
order interact with others. Approach objective interpretive is nothing but
analyzing this kind of social reality and how that social reality formed. In order to
understand a specific social environment, researchers must delve the subjective
experience of the perpetrators. Interpretive research does not address objectivity
as at the most important thing, but it recognizes that for the sake of gaining deep
understanding, then the subjectivity of the actors must be explored as deep as
possible this allows a trade-off between objectivity and depth of research findings
(Efferin, 2004).
3. Critical paradigm
According to Neuman the critical approach is more aimed at fighting for
the ideas of researchers in order to bring substantial change to society. Research
no longer producing scientific papers that are neutral / impartial and apolitical,
however is more of a tool to change social institutions, ways of thinking, and
people's behavior towards which is believed to be better. Therefore, in this
approach a deep understanding of a phenomenon based on field facts needs to be
complemented by analysis and opinion based on the personal circumstances of the
researcher, as long as it is supported by adequate arguments. Succinctly, The
critical approach is defined as the process of searching for answers that goes
beyond appearance in the surface is often dominated by illusions, in order to help
people to change their conditions and build their world for the better (Neuman,
2003: 81).
Philosophical bases of qualitative research 

There are four philosophical basis studies mentioned by Suhasimi Arikunto

(2014)
1. Phenomenological
Padilla-Diaz (2015) states in the classical work, philosopher Immanuel Kant used
the term "phénomenism;" Criticism of pure reason, in which he distinguished the
mental depiction of objects, understood as something in themselves (a priori
independent of experience), and objects understood based on experience (Parodi
in Padilla-Diaz 2015). The word phenomenology comes from Greek, and its
meaning, "appearance or manifestation," is as follows. It is also defined as a
philosophy or school that explains self and consciousness by analyzing the
phenomena observed (Litchman in Padilla-Diaz 2015). Creswell (1998) argues
that when research problems require a thorough understanding of human
experiences common to a group of people, the best criteria to assess the use of
phenomenology is. The author suggests that 3-15 members should be in the
studied group. The group members must be in a position to articulate their
experiences. The more diverse participants' experiences become the more
complex the researcher will be for the essences that underpin the studied
phenomenon and their ordinary meanings. The research phenomenologist's role is
to "construct" the object under study according to its manifestations, structures,
and elements (Ponce in Padilla-Diaz 2015).
2. Symbolic interactions
Symbolic interactions are the foundation for critical social studies and are used in
qualitative research. John Dewey and Blumer H are some well-known experts.
The second expert has reviewed symbolic interactions by dividing the
respondents' three symbolic principles. The following are the principles or
premises.
 Human actions are based on their interests. Researchers need to see the
process or sequence of their actions when interpreting an action or a
phenomenon.
 In principle, the process of an individual's actions is the product or result
of a social process where others can measure the individual. The
researchers must be precise about the interaction results that influence
them when interpreting symptoms.
 Humans are awakened by other first or together phenomena. Therefore,
researchers should take into account the phenomena or symptoms linked to
these symptoms and affect them.
3. Cultural theory,
An area concerned with understanding the conceptual principles underlying
cultural, scientific disciplines. Culture, which in the context of a community life,
which has become self-owned through learning, is a human idea, action, and
work.
It can be concluded that cultural science focuses on people. That is, people are
viewed as cultural beings, not as biological beings. Cultural research thus focuses
mainly on people, including:
- What human beings as individuals and social beings contain?
- Anything that encourages him to do/act in a person and things related to him
from the outside.
4. Anthropology 
The focus of anthropology is intimately connected with human activities, both in
terms of regulation and history. This is why scientists must pay great attention to
and continue with human activity in the past. The researcher uses an inductive
approach, within a not too broad, flexible, and contextual scope, to give a precise
picture of the anthropological phenomenon. Therefore, based on the phenomena
he found in the field, the investigator may describe the data in a thick description.
The data are laid down as "onion bulbs" as a simple metaphor for qualitative
research data. The researchers have meanwhile removed the tuber layers
(Arikunto, 2014)
According to Sugiyono (2014:15) in (Wijaya, 2015) qualitative research
methods are methods based on philosophy post positivism, that is used to
investigate the condition of natural objects (rather than an experiment wherein the
researcher is the main instrument), data sampling was performed by purposive and
snowball, the collection technique of triangulation (combined), inductive /
qualitative data interpretation, and research results qualitative emphasizes context
rather than generalization.

Moreover, according to Creswell (2007) in (Brigitte., 2017) the

philosophical assumptions in qualitative research consist of a stance toward the
nature of reality (ontology), how the researchers know and what they know
(epistemology), the methods used in the process (methodology), and human
nature.

a. Ontology

Ontology is the study of the nature of existence (Crotty, 1998), social

entities (Bryman, 2012), and reality (Bryman, 2012). (Hammersley, 1992).
According to Lincoln and Guba (2013, p. 39), ontology is concerned with the
questions, “What can be known?” and “What is the nature of reality?”. Antwi &
Hamza (2015) suggested another theory, describing ontology as the way the
investigator defines truth and fact(Lin, 2019). In the research, ontology is a crucial
assumption about the existence of the phenomena. The fundamental question in
ontology is whether the "truth" under investigation is empirical or a cognitive
construct of the individual. The discussion about ontology is thus divided into two
camps: realism (which assumes that the social environment exists independently
of individual appreciation) and nominalism (which assumes that the social world
that exists outside of an individual's cognitive origin is derived solely from the
names, meanings, and labels that are used to create reality).

b. Epistemology

Epistemology is concerned with the types of information that are sufficient

and real (Gray, 2014) in (Lin, 2019). Epistemology is a philosophy about the
foundations of knowledge (grounds of knowledge) that describes how a person
starts to comprehend the world and express it to others as knowledge. What types
of information are available, what distinguishes what is "right" from what is
"wrong?", and what is the concept of nature science. Furthermore, epistemology
has been described as the method by which a researcher discovers the truth and
fact, or, to put it another way, how do we know what we know. As a result,
epistemology investigates the relationship between the inquirer and the subject of
the inquiry (Guba, 1990, p. 27).

The fundamental question of epistemology is whether knowledge can be

identified and communicated as something hard, actual, and observable (so that
knowledge can be attained) or whether knowledge is softer, more contextual, and
dependent on experience and intuition from a person's specific and essential
characteristics (so that knowledge is something that must be personally
experienced). The discussion about epistemology is thus divided between
positivism (which attempts to explain and predict what will happen to the social
world by finding habit and the causal relationship between its key elements) and
antipositivism (which opposes the search for rules or basic norms in social affairs,
suggesting that the social world can only be understood from the point of view of
the individual). Which suggests that the social world can only be understood
through the perspective of those personally involved in the activities under
research).
 c. Methodology

Methodology is assumption of how someone tries to investigate and gain

"information" about the social world. The fundamental question of methodology
is whether the social world is a harsh, concrete, factual reality that exists outside
of the individual or a more delicate, personal reality that exists within the
individual. According to Antwi & Hamza, (2015, p. 218) methodology described
as how the method used in conducting the investigation. How do we research the
world has also been defined as methodology (Kawulich, 2015, p. 1). The
methodological aspects of a research must be aligned with the study's ontological
and epistemological stances. There is no single reality, according to the
constructivist paradigm, and various realities are constructed by interactions.
Furthermore, people's perceptions of the world are shaped by social, cultural, and
historical viewpoints. Furthermore, social, cultural, and historical viewpoints all
influences people's perceptions of the world (Crotty, 1998). As a result, the
constructivist paradigm believes that research methods should focus on "minds
and meaning-making, sense-making behaviors" (Lincoln & Guba, 2013, p. 40).
As is common in qualitative research such as the case study technique, which
utilizes interviews and observational methods.

d. Human Nature

Human nature is a set of beliefs about how humans interact with their
environment. The fundamental issue of human nature focuses on whether humans
are creations of their environment, are mechanically/deterministically responsive
to circumstances encountered in their external world, or are creators of their
environment. The discussion about human nature is thus divided into determinism
(assumes that humans and their activities are decided by the condition or
environment in which they live) and voluntarism (believes that humans and their
activities are determined by the situation or environment in which they live)
(which considers humans to be autonomous and free-willed) (Chairi, 2009).

Conclusion
 In conclusion, From the statement above, can sum up that qualitative
research is described as "a method for investigating and comprehending the
significance that individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem,
Qualitative research aims at showing the significance of an event for those
interested in how people describe their own experiences. Qualitative research may
also be used to figure out "cause and effect, predict, or describe the distribution of
any attribute among a population. paradigma define as the research’s reset
prespective used that contains how the researcher perceive the reality, how to
learn the phenomena, the ways that used on research and the way to intrerpret the
finding. Paradigma in qualitative researsh consist of postposititvism ( a series of
logically connected steps, believe in diversity, the perspective of a single reality
and support learning methods and precise data analysis), Constructivism-
Interpretivism ( that knowlwdge is not just an outcome experience agints fact, but
also is the result of thougt construction the subject studied), and the last critical
paradigm ( asses reality critically). Philosophy post positivism, that is used to
investigate the condition of natural objects, consist of ontology (how the
researchers know and what they know), epistemology (the methods used in the
process), methodology and human nature.

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