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Where in the world?
How does a cell resemble a city?

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What is a cell?
A cell is the basic unit of life, from which larger structures
such as tissue and organs are made.

 Unicellular organisms,
such as bacteria, consist of
just a single cell.

 Multicellular organisms
consists of many cells –
humans are made from an
estimated 50 trillion cells!

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How big is a cell?
Most plant and animal cells are between 0.025 µm and 60
µm in size – around half the diameter of a human hair –
and too small to see without a microscope.

The largest cell in the human

body is the female egg cell,
(ovum) at around 1,000 µm
in diameter.

The smallest human cell is

the sperm cell – the head is
around 5 µm long.

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Specialized cells
Most plants and animals are multicellular. The human
body is made up of around 200 different types of cell, all
working together.
Most cells are specialized, meaning
that each type of cell has a specific
structure and function.
All cells with a nucleus contain the
same genes, but different cells
activate different genes so they only
produce the proteins they need.
However, all cells have certain
common features and structures
called organelles.
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What do cells contain?

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Animal or plant?

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A closer look at animal cells

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Exploring animal cells

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 How do animal cells specialize?
In animals, the first type of cells in the developing embryo
are stem cells. These are unspecialized cells that go on to
form all the different cell types in the adult.

red blood cell stem cell sperm cell

nerve cell muscle cell

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How are animal cells adapted?

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Animal cells: fit for a purpose

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A closer look at plant cells

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Exploring plant cells

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How do plant cells specialize?
Unlike animals, many plant cells retain the ability to
differentiate and specialize throughout their life. These
cells are found in tissues called meristems.

meristem cell

root cell leaf cell

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How are plant cells adapted?

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Plant cells: fit for a purpose

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What is a cell wall?
All plant cells have a cell wall –
a rigid layer that surrounds the
cell membrane.
The plant cell wall is made
from cellulose, a carbohydrate
polymer. The purpose of the
cell wall is to:
 maintain the shape and structure of the cell
 protect the cell’s contents from pathogens
 prevent damage to the cell caused by excess water intake.

Unlike the cell membrane, the cell wall is freely

permeable to water and other molecules.

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What is a vacuole?
The vacuole is a fluid–filled
sac found within plant cells
and some bacteria.

The vacuole has a range of

functions, including:

 storing waste products

 maintaining the water and pH balance of the cell
 regulating the turgor pressure of the cell.

The site of vacuoles depend on how much water the plant

has absorbed.

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What are chloroplasts?
Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis
in plant cells.

A green pigment in chloroplasts

called chlorophyll absorbs the
energy in sunlight.

This energy is used to

convert carbon dioxide
and water into glucose
and oxygen. thylakoids

Chlorophyll is embedded in disk-like structures called

thylakoids, which are arranged into stacks.

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Which organelle?

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How do cells get their energy?
All organisms need energy
to survive.

Animals obtain their energy

from the food they eat, but
plants can make their own
food by photosynthesis.

In both cases, however,

energy must first be converted
into a form that can easily be
used by cells. This process is
called respiration.

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Where does respiration take place?
Mitochondria are cellular organelles in which
respiration takes place.

Mitochondria use enzymes to

convert the energy from glucose
into ATP – the basic energy
source for all cells.

Mitochondria have an inner

membrane on which the
enzymes are embedded.

This membrane is highly folded to increase the surface

area on which respiration can take place.

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What is aerobic respiration?
Aerobic respiration is the process of releasing energy
through the oxidation of glucose molecules.

Aerobic respiration is summarized by the equation:

carbon
glucose + oxygen  dioxide + water ( + energy)

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H20 ( + ATP)

This reaction releases energy in the form of ATP – a

compound that can readily be used in cellular processes.

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What is anaerobic respiration?
Anaerobic respiration takes place without oxygen, and
releases less energy than aerobic respiration because
glucose molecules are only partially broken down.

During strenuous exercise, cells

are deprived of oxygen but still
need energy to work. The body
responds by converting glucose
into lactic acid and energy,
leading to an oxygen ‘debt’.

Lactic acid causes muscle cramps.

When exercise stops, oxygen
levels rise, paying off the oxygen
debt and oxidising the lactic acid.

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How is energy used?
The chemical energy produced by respiration, ATP, is
used by cells to undertake work.
Where might ATP be used?
 movement – enabling muscles
to contract

 thermoregulation in mammals
and birds

 biosynthesis – building new

molecules, cells and tissues

 active transport – moving molecules against a

concentration gradient.

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What is photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction where light energy is
used to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and
oxygen.

This reaction can be summarized by the equation:

light energy
carbon
dioxide + water  glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll

6CO2 + 6H20  C6H12O6 + 6O2

The reaction uses light energy from the Sun and takes place
in chloroplasts of plant cells.

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Using energy from photosynthesis
The glucose produced by photosynthesis has many uses
in plants, such as for:

 energy release in respiration

 making cellulose for cell walls

 combining with minerals to make

proteins and other essential
compounds

 an energy store in the form of

insoluble starch.

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Protein synthesis

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Protein synthesis

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 Glossary (1/2)

 aerobic respiration – The process of releasing energy

through the oxidation of glucose molecules.
 anaerobic respiration – The process of releasing
energy from glucose molecules in the absence of oxygen.
 ATP – Adenosine triphosphate, the major form of energy
used by cells.
 cell – The basic structural and functional unit of life.
 cell membrane – The partially-permeable barrier that
regulates substances entering and leaving a cell.
 cell wall – The rigid external coat that protects and
supports plant cells.
 chlorophyll – The green pigment found in chloroplasts.

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 Glossary (2/2)

 chloroplast – The site of photosynthesis in plant cells.

 cytoplasm – The jelly-like material in which all a cell’s
organelles are found, and in which most cellular processes
and reactions occur.
 mitochondria – The site of energy release by respiration.
 nucleus – The location of a cell’s DNA.
 photosynthesis – The chemical reaction in which light
energy is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into
glucose and oxygen.
 ribosome – The site of protein synthesis.
 vacuole – The fluid-filled cavity found in plant cells that
stores water and nutrients.

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Anagrams

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Multiple-choice quiz

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