College of Engineering

.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter -2-
Power Plant Cycle

Target Group: Fifth Year Mechanical Engineering Students

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 Chapter -2
2. Power Plant Cycle

Generally Power plants cycle is divided in to the following

groups:
I. Vapour Power Cycle
 Example:- Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle, Regenerative cycle,
Reheat cycle, and others
II. Gas Power Cycles (Brayton cycle)
 Example:- Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual combustion cycle,
Gas turbine cycle

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 Cont…
2.1. Vapour Power Cycle/Steam Cycle
 Historically ,the first functioning power cycle is steam turbine, which
commonly working by means of water vapour(steam).
 Example:- Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle, Regenerative cycle, Reheat cycle,
and other cycle
Carnot Cycle
 The Carnot cycle is the ideal cycle against which all external combustion
heat engines are usually compared.
 The Carnot cycle is the optimum cycle and all cycles attempt to reach this
optimum. That is the maximum thermal efficiency is achieved by
approaching the isothermal compression and expansion of the Carnot cycle.
This indicates that by intercooling in the compression and reheating in the
expansion process.
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 Cont…

 Heat engines are cyclic devices that work depending on the Carnot
cycle and in which the working fluid of a heat engine returns to its
initial state at the end of each cycle. That is Work is done by the
working fluid during one part of the cycle and on the working fluid
during another part. Basically the Carnot heat engine operates
between two temperature ranges (Low temperature reservoir and
high temperature Reservoir).

FIGURE 2.1: The Carnot Cycle. 4

 Cont…

Rankine Cycle
 The Rankine cycle or Rankine Vapour Cycle is the process
widely used by power plants such as coal-fired power plants or
nuclear reactors. In this mechanism, a fuel is used to produce
heat within a boiler, converting water into steam which then
expands through a turbine producing useful work.
 This is a thermodynamic cycle which converts heat into
mechanical energy which usually gets transformed into
electricity by electrical generation.

FIGURE 2.2: The Rankine Cycle.

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 Cont…
Regenerative Cycle
 A cycle in a steam engine using heat that would ordinarily be
lost: such as a multiple-expansion steam-engine cycle in which
the receivers are used as successive feed-water heaters.
 It is a steam-turbine cycle in which the condensate or feed water
is heated to a temperature that is much higher than that
corresponding to saturation at the exhaust pressure by means of
steam that has been bled from the turbine at points intermediate
between the throttle and exhaust.

FIGURE 2.3: The Regenerative Cycle.

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 Cont…
Reheat Cycle
 It is achieved by splitting the expansion phase into two or
more sequential phases. In between steam is returned to the
boiler for reheating. This corresponds to dividing one turbine
into or more steps.

FIGURE 2.4: The Reheat Cycle.

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2.2. Gas Power Cycles (Brayton Cycle)
 Example:- Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Dual combustion cycle, Gas turbine
cycle
Otto Cycle
 Is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the functioning of a
typical spark ignition piston engine. It is the thermodynamic cycle most
commonly found in automobile engines.
 Is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines. It consists of
four internally reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression,
2-3 Constant volume heat addition,

3-4 Isentropic expansion,

4-1 Constant volume heat rejection. 8
 Cont…
Diesel Cycle
 The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal
combustion engine. In it, fuel is ignited by heat generated during the
compression of air in the combustion chamber, into which fuel is
then injected.
 This is in contrast to igniting the fuel-air mixture with a spark plug
as in the Otto cycle (four-stroke/petrol) engine. Diesel engines are
used in aircraft, automobiles, power generation, diesel-electric
locomotives, and both surface ships and submarines.
 The Diesel cycle is assumed to have constant pressure during the
initial part of the combustion phase.
Dual Combustion Cycle
 The efficiency of dual combustion cycle is greater than Diesel cycle
and less than Otto cycle, for the same compression ratio. 9
 Cont…
Gas Turbine Cycle
 The basic operation of the gas turbine is a Brayton cycle with air as
the working fluid. Atmospheric air flows through the compressor that
brings it to higher pressure.
 This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it
expands down to the exhaust pressure, producing a shaft work output
in the process.
 There are essentially three types of gas turbine cycles: first is the
simple cycle, where the gas is exhausted directly to atmosphere;
secondly, the regenerative cycle, where the exhaust gas is used in an
exchanger (regenerator) to preheat the compressor discharge air prior
to the combustor; and finally there is the combined cycle, where the
exhaust gas is used in a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) to
either generate steam for plant use or as an expansion fluid.
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 Cont…
 The open gas-turbine cycle described above can be modelled as open
cycle and a closed cycle by utilizing the air-standard assumption.
 Here from the Brayton cycle the compression and expansion process
remain the same, but the combustion process is replaced by a
constant-pressure heat addition process from an external source and
the exhaust pressure is replaced by a constant pressure heat-rejection
process to the ambient air.
 The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in this closed loop is
the Brayton cycle, which is made up of four internally irreversible
processes.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection 11
 Cont…
 The open gas-turbine cycle described above can be modelled as
open cycle and a closed cycle by utilizing the air-standard
assumption.

Fig: 2.6:-An Closed-cycle

Fig: 2.5:- An open-cycle gas-
gas-turbine engine/Brayton
turbine engine/Brayton

Fig: 2.7:- T-s diagram

Representation/Brayton Cycle
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 2.3 Rankine Cycle:- (The Ideal Cycle For Vapor Power Cycles)
 The Rankine cycle is an ideal case from the common steam cycle.
 Steam power plants constitutes around 80 % of the world’s electric
power generation
 Steam cycles used in electrical power plants and in the production of
shaft power industry are based on the familiar Rankin cycle.
 The basic components of steam cycle are:-

I. Pump IV. Condenser

II. Boiler
III. Turbine

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 Cont...
 Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can
be eliminated by superheating the steam in the boiler and
condensing it completely in the condenser, as shown schematically
on a T-s diagram.
 The cycle that results is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle
for vapor power plants.
 The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal
irreversibility and consists of the following four processes
stipulated on the following sub topic 2.3.

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 Cont
 Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can ...
be
eliminated by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it
completely in the condenser, as shown schematically on a T-s diagram.
 The cycle that results is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle for
vapor power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any
internal irreversibility and consists of the following four processes:-

• 1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump

• 2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler

• 3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine

• 4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser

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 Cont
...

FIGURE 2.8: The Simple Ideal Rankine Cycle.

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 Cont
 Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid...and is
compressed isentropically to the operating pressure of the boiler.
 The water temperature increases somewhat during this
isentropic compression process due to a slight decrease in the
specific volume of water.
 The vertical distance between states 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram
is greatly exaggerated for clarity.
 The superheated vapor at state 3 enters the turbine, where it
expands isentropically and produces work by rotating the shaft
connected to an electric generator.
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 Cont
 The pressure and the temperature of steam drop ... this
during
process to the values at state 4, where steam enters the
condenser. At this state, steam is usually a saturated liquid–
vapor mixture with a high quality.
 Lastly Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the
condenser, which is basically a large heat exchanger, by
rejecting heat to a cooling medium such as a lake, a river, or the
atmosphere.
1.1 Energy AnalysisSteam
of anleaves the condenser
Ideal Rankine Cycleas saturated liquid and
enters the pump, completing the cycle.
 All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the
pump, boiler, turbine, and condenser) are steady-flow devices.18
 Cont
 All four processes that make up the Rankine cycle ... be
can
analyzed as steady-flow processes.
 The kinetic and potential energy changes of the steam are
usually small relative to the work and heat transfer terms and are
therefore usually neglected.
 Then the steady-flow energy equation per unit mass of steam
reduces to: 2.1
 The boiler and the condenser do not involve any work, and the
pump and the turbine are assumed to be isentropic. Then the
conservation of energy relation for each device can be expressed
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as follows:
 Cont
...
2.2
Where: Pump q
=0

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2.4. Components of a Basic Steam Cycle

 Basically the Idealization and Simplification of steam cycle have

the following characteristics or advantageous over gas power
cycle:-
i. The cycle does not involve any friction.
ii. All expansion and compression process take place in a
quasi-equilibrium manner.
iii. The pipe connecting the various component of a system
are well insulated and heat transfer and pressure drop
through them are negligible

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 Cont.…
 Liquid water is compressed in
compressor to a high pressure
by a pump
 The pressurised water is heated
and vaporised in a boiler,
which is fuelled by a coal, oil,
biomass or nuclear fission
 Hot and compressed water
vapour has high energy
content, which is utilised by
the turbine generating work. Figure 2.9: Components of Basic Steam Cycle
 After expansion in the turbine
the vapour enters a condenser,
which brings the vapour to
liquid form 22
 2.4.1 T-S and H-s Diagram for An Ideal Steam Cycle

Figure 2.10: T-S and H-s

Diagram for An Ideal
Steam Cycle

 The ideal steam cycle is also called the Rankin Cycle

Process 1-2 isentropic pressure increase by the pump
Process 2-3 heat supply in the boiler
Process 3-4 isentropic expansion in the turbine
Process 4-1 condensing in the condenser
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 Cont.
Turbine Efficiency
 An efficiency for a real turbine, known as the isentropic efficiency, is
defined as the ratio of the actual shaft work to the shaft work for an
isentropic expansion between the same inlet state and exit pressure
level. i.e. the inlet state and the exit pressure should be isentropic.
 Based on the notation of the above Figure we see that the turbine
efficiency is:

Pump Efficiency
 Work must be supplied to a pump to move liquid from a low
pressure to a high pressure. Some of the work supplied is lost due
to irreversibilities. Ideally the remaining effective work to raise
the pressure is necessarily less than that supplied. 24
 Cont.
 In order for the efficiency of a pump to be less than or equal to
1, it is defined in inverse fashion to turbine efficiency.
 That is, pump efficiency is the ratio of the isentropic work to the
actual work input when operating between two given pressures.

Figure 2.11 Pump Efficiency 25

 Cont.
 In a steam cycle, the pump work can be neglected, as the turbine
power output is very large in comparison to the pump work.
2.4.2 Steam Generators
 A steam generator popularly known as boiler:- is a closed vessel
made of high quality steel in which steam is generated from
water by the application of heat.
 The water receives heat from the hot gases though the heating
surfaces of the boiler.
 The hot gases are formed by burning fuel, may be coal, oil or gas.
 Heating surface of the boiler is that part of the boiler which is
exposed to hot gases on one side and water or steam on the other
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 Cont.

 The steam generator produce

steam directly within the tubes and
it does not have a steam drum
 The tube of the steam generator
are fully located in the fluidized
bed and all heat transfer during
steam generation occurs within
the bad.
 There are high requirements on
the material of the tubes as they Figure 2.12 Example of Steam Generator

are exposed to the extremely

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 Cont.
 The difference between a superheated
steam cycle and the basic steam cycle
is that in the superheated steam cycle
the steam is brought to superheated
state in the boiler
 Within the boiler, water is heated in
the economizer, transformed into
steam in the evaporator, and
superheated in the superheated.
Fig 2.3 Example of Steam Generator
 The heating processes can be
considered isobaric (under constant
pressure). In reality there is a certain
pressure drop due to hydraulic losses
in the boiler. As a result the cycle 28
 Cont.
 A heat balance on the water stream side of a boiler gives the heat
absorbed in the steam cycle (equals QB)

 However, a boiler efficiency indicates which is the fuel input, i.e

how much energy must be supplied with the fuel.

 In all boilers there are always losses while transferring the heat
from the fuel to the water stream. For example, the fuel gases
may need to pass cleaning equipment and for this need a relative
high temperature, thus all heat contents cannot be transferred to
the steam. Then the boiler efficiency is:

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 Cont.
2.4.3 Boiler Heating Rate

Figure 2.13 Sum of the work

don for boiler heating rate

 Specific heat input (kJ/kg) into the boiler includes the reheat:

Total specific work production (kJ/kg) including pump

work is:
Where wt,1 and wt,2 are corresponding work produced in turbine 1 and 2 respectively,
and Wp is feed water pump work; h1 are enthalpies corresponding to the thermodynamic
state 1 of the working fluid.
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2.4.4 Boiler Accessories (components)
Economizer
 The economizer is a feed water heater, deriving heat from the
flue gases. The justifiable cost of the economizer depends on the
total gain in efficiency.
 In turn this depends on the flue gas temperature leaving the
boiler and the feed water inlet temperature.
Evaporator
 In the evaporator , medium value heat from the exhaust is used
for boiling the pressurized water , which generate saturated
steam.
Superheater
 The superheater consists of a superheater header and superheater
elements.
 Steam from the main steam pipe arrives at the saturated steam
chamber of the superheater header and is fed into the 31
 Cont.
Reheater
 The reheater functions similar to the superheater in that it serves to elevate
the steam temperature.
 Primary steam is supplied to the high pressure turbine. After passing through
the high pressure turbine, the steam is returned to the steam generator for
reheating (in a reheater) after which it is sent to the low pressure turbine.
Soot Blowers
 The fuel used in thermal power plants causes soot and this is deposited on the
boiler tubes, economizer tubes, air pre heaters, etc. This drastically reduces
the amount of heat transfer of the heat exchangers.
 Soot blowers control the formation of soot and reduce its corrosive effects.

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2.5 Reheat and Superheat
2.5.1 Reheat Cycle
 A common modification of the Rankine cycle in large power plants
involves interrupting the steam expansion in the turbine to add more
heat to the steam before completing the turbine expansion, a process

known as Reheat.
 Saturated some does not provide vary high temperature in the cycle,
as higher temperature means higher pressure and there are
constraints regarding material strength in the boiler.
 Also the higher the pressure at the turbine outlet, the wetter is the
steam (for fixed condenser Pressure), and thus there is significant
risk for blade erosion in the turbine as shown in the figure by T-s
Diagram.
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 Cont.…

Figure 2.14 Example of Reheat Rankine Cycle and T-S diagram

 Thus the total heat input and the total turbine work output for a
reheat cycle become:

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 Cont.…
2.5.2 Superheating
 The average temperature at which heat is transferred to steam can be
increased without increasing the boiler pressure by superheating the
steam to high temperatures.
 Thus both the net work and heat input increase as a result of
superheating the steam to a higher temperature.
 The overall effect is an increase in thermal efficiency, however, since
the average temperature at which heat is added increases.
 Superheating the steam to higher temperatures has another very
desirable effect: It decreases the moisture content of the steam at the
turbine exit.
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 Cont.…

gure 15:- The effect of superheating the steam to higher

Figure 16:- The effect of increasing the
mperatures on the ideal Rankine cycle boiler pressure on the ideal Rankine
cycle
 This indicates the increment in cycle temperature may increase the
net work done and improves the cycle efficiency and in other words
for a fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the left and
the moisture content of steam at the turbine exit increases. 36
 Cont.
2.5.3 T-S diagram for Superheating

 If x (steam Quality) is the amount of vapour in the vapour liquid

mixture in the turbine outlet, then x1 < x2. i.e. the higher pressure
provides water steam.

Figure 2.17 T-s diagram for superheating cycle

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 Cont.
 The reheat temperatures are very close or equal to the turbine
inlet temperature. The optimum reheat pressure is about one-
fourth of the maximum cycle pressure.

 For example, the optimum reheat pressure for a cycle with a

boiler pressure of 12 MPa is about 3 MPa. Remember that the
sole purpose of the reheat cycle is to reduce the moisture
content of the steam at the final stages of the expansion process.

 If we had materials that could withstand sufficiently high

temperatures, there would be no need for the reheat cycle.

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Steam Quality at Steam Turbine Out let
Cont.
 The quality of a vapour liquid
mixture is defined as mass-amount
of vapour in the mixture i.e:-
mvapor
x ;0 <x1
mvapor  mliquid

Which can be expressed as:

s  sliquid
x
s vapor  sliquid

 In the basic steam cycle, when quality

Figure 2.18: T-s diagram for a
of mixture passing through the turbine
cycle working in the saturation
becomes to low, water droplets area
appears. The liquid droplets may
cause erosion.
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 2.6 Regenerative Steam Cycles

 The regenerative feed water heating or regeneration is one of

the most commonly used methods to increase the thermal
efficiency of steam power plants.

Figure 2.19 Feed Water Tank

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 Cont.
 Regeneration is a possibility to transfer heat to the feedwater from the
expanding steam in a counter flow heat exchanger built into the
turbine.
 This solution is also impractical because it is difficult to design such a
heat exchanger and because it would increase the moisture content of
the steam at the final stages of the turbine.
 A practical regeneration process in steam power plants is
accomplished by extracting, or “bleeding,” steam from the turbine at
various points. This steam, which could have produced more work by
expanding further in the turbine, is used to heat the feedwater instead.

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 Cont.
 The device where the feedwater is heated by regeneration is
called a regenerator, or a feedwater heater (FWH).
 Regeneration not only improves cycle efficiency, but also
provides a convenient means of deaerating the feedwater
(removing the air that leaks in at the condenser) to prevent
corrosion in the boiler.
 It also helps control the large volume flow rate of the steam at
the final stages of the turbine (due to the large specific volumes
at low pressures).

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 Questions, Comment, Suggestion ???

NB:- For all the lessons please we are recommended to use the

references stated on your Course Outline For more detail!!!

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