Climate Scales

Climate is loosely defined as "average weather"

different spatial scales of climate:

1. Microclimate - near the ground over your front yard

2. Mesoclimate - over a field or few fields (a few square kilometers)
3. Macroclimate - scale of a state or country
4. Global climate - over entire earth

Climate Controls
1. Intensity of solar radiation and it's variation with latitude
2. Distribution of land and water
3. Ocean currents
4. Prevailing winds
5. Positions of semi-permanant high and low pressure systems
6. Mountain barriers
7. Altitude
Climate classification systems
No rigid rules exist to define climates on the earth as climatic classifications depend on
different combinations of climatic factors and elements. This explains the many
solutions proposed on the basis of the type of combination.

The most important climatic classification system are:

1. Zonal classification considering solar radiation or the temperature of the Earth’s
surface;
2. Dominant factor or limiting factor classification, based on the main factor, as for
example, aridity or humidity, which can limit life processes; 
3. Genetic classification, on the basis of atmospheric circulation elements or mean
seasonal distribution of air-masses;
4. Quantitative classification, taking into account temperature and rainfall and their
combined effect on the biological environment. Quantitative classifications, as the
Köppen’s climatic system and Thornthwaite’s climatic system are considered the
most rational systems of climate classification.
De Martonne climatic classification
De Martonne created a climatic classification based on the duration of the aridity period over the year. The
aridity index (A) of a place is defined by the following formula:
A = [P/(T+10) + 12p/(t+10)]/2
in which P is annual precipitation; T is the mean annual temperature, p the precipitation of the driest month
and t the mean temperature of the driest month.
According to the De Martonne aridity index the following 6 climatic types can be identified:
Climatic classification according to De Martonne

Climatic type Aridity index values

very dry; * 0-5
dry; ** 5-12
semiarid; *** 15-20
subhumid; 20-30
 
humid; 30-60
very humid; over 60
*= desert; **= steppe; ***=
 
Mediterranean type
 Criteria for classification of major climatic types in modified Köppen system.

Letter Criteria
A Avg. temp. of coolest month 18°C or higher
f precip. in driest month at least 6 cm
m precip. in driest month < 6 cm but >= 10 - r/25
w precip. in driest month < 10 - r/25
B 70% or more of annual precip. falls in warmer six months and r < 2t + 28
70% or more of annual precip. falls in cooler six months and r < 2t
Neither half of year with more than 70% of annual precip. and r < 2t + 14
W r < 1/2 upper limit of applicable requirement for B
S r < upper limit for B but more than 1/2 that amount
h t > 18°C
k t < 18°C
C Avg. temp. of warmest month > 10°C and of coldest month between 18° and 0°C
s precip. in driest month of summer half of year less tan 4 cm and < 1/3 the amount
in wettest winter month
w precip. in driest month of winter half of year < 1/10 of amount in wettest summer
month
f precip. not meeting conditions of either s or w
a Avg. temp. of warmest month 22°C or above
b Avg. temp. of each of four warmest months 10°C or above; temp. of warmest
month below 22°C
c Avg. temp. of from one to three months 10°C or above; temp. of warmest month
below 22°C
D Avg. temp. of warmest month > 10°C and of coldest month 0°C or below
s Same as under C
w Same as under C
f Same as under C
a Same as under C
b Same as under C
c Same as under C
d Avg. temp. of coldest month below - 38°C
E Avg. temp. of warmest month equal to or below 10°C
T Avg. temp. of warmest month between 10° and 0°C
F Avg. temp. of warmest month 0°C or below
H Temp. requirements same as E, but due to altitude (generally above 1500 m)

* t = average annual temperature (°C); r = average annual precipitation (cm).

 Tropical Rainforest (Af)

Lat/Long = 3.39o S, 73.18o W

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = 26.1
Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 1.4
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 2879.2
Summer Precipitation (mm) =1583
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 1294.7
Geographic Distribution
Amazon Basin,
Congo River Basin,
East coast of Central America,
East coast and interior of Brazil,
East coast of Madagascar,
Malaysia,
Indonesia,
Philippines.
 
Controlling Factors
High year-round insolation and
precipitation of ITCZ.
Rising air along trade wind coasts.
mE air masses.
Characteristics
Constant high temperatures.
"Equal" day length.
Lowest annual temperature range
of any climate.
Evenly distributed, heavy
precipitation.
Much cloud cover and high
humidity.
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

Lat/Long = 12.53o N, 74.52o E

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = 27.05
Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 3.6
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 3409.2
Summer Precipitation (mm) = 3115.9
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 293.3
Geographic Distribution
Coastal areas of southwest India,
Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Mynamar (Burma),
Southwestern Africa,
French Guiana,
northeast and southeast Brazil.
 
Controlling Factors
Summer onshore/winter offshore air movement related to
shifting ITCZ or monsoon circulation.
mE air masses during high-sun; stable mT or cT -> low-sun

Characteristics
Heavy high-sun rain; short low-sun drought.
Highest temperature just before rainy period.
 Wet Dry Tropical Climate (Aw)

Latitude/Longitude = 14o N; 17o W

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = 24.5
Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 7.1
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 578
Summer Precipitation (mm) = 516
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 62
Tropical Desert Climate (BWh)

Latitude/Longitude: 27.7o N; 8.1o W

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = 22.8
Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 21.2
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 43.8
Summer Precipitation (mm) =11.8
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 32
 Geographic Distribution
coastal Chile and Peru
southern Argentina
southwest Africa
north Africa
Arabia, Iran
Pakistan, and western India;
Baja California and interior Mexico

Controlling Factors
Descending, diverging, circulation of subtropical highs
Continentality linked often with rain shadow location.
cT air masses
Characteristics
Among the driest places on earth
Mean annual temperature above 64.4o F (18oC)
Low relative humidity
Irregular and unreliable rainfall
Highest percentage of sunshine of any climate
Large diurnal temperature range
Highest daytime temperature of any climate
Annual precipitation less than half the annual potential evapotranspiration
Tropical Steppe Climate (BSh)

Latitude/Longitude: 16.25oS N; 133.3oE

Average Annual Temperature (C) = 26.5o
Annual Temperature Range (C) = 10o
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 536.2
Summer Precipitation (mm) =500
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 36.2
 Geographic Distribution
Peripheral to deserts especially in:
Australia
northern and southern Africa
southwest Asia
Argentina
western United States
 
Controlling Factors
Descending, diverging, circulation of subtropical highs
Continentality linked often with rainshadow location.
cT;mT

Characteristics
Semiarid
Annual rainfall distribution similar to nearest humid climate
Annual precipitation more than half, but less than annual potential
evapotranspiration
 Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa)

Latitude/Longitude = 35o N; 90o W

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = 17
Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 22
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 1222
Summer Precipitation (mm) = 536
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 686
Geographic Distribution
Southeastern U.S.
southeastern South America;
coastal southeast South Africa;
eastern Australia;
eastern Asia from northern India through south China to Japan.

Controlling Factors
East coast location between 20o and 40o N and S latitudes.
Humid (mTu air masses) onshore air movement in summer.
Cyclonic storms in winter (cP air masses)

Characteristics
High humidity; summers like humid tropics.
Frost with polar air masses in winter.
25 to 100 in of precipitation, decreasing inland.
Monsoon influence in Asia.
Mediterranean or Dry Summer 
Subtropical Climate (Csa, Csb)

Latitude/Longitude = 37.45o N; 122.26o W

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = 13.75
Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 9
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 475
Summer Precipitation (mm) = 54
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 421
Geographic Distribution
Central California
central Chile
Mediterranean Sea borderlands
Iranian Highlands
Capetown area of South Africa
southwestern Australia

Controlling Factors
West coast location between 30o and 40o N and S latitude.
Alternating between Subtropical High in summer and Polar Front/Westerlies in winter.
Cyclonic precipitation during the winter.
Summer air masses: mTs, cT
Winter air masses: mT, mP, cP

Characteristics
Mild, moist winters, hot dry summers inland
Cool, often foggy coasts
High percentage of sunshine
High summer diurnal temperature range
Frost danger during winter
Humid Continental Climate (Dfa, Dfb)

Latitude/Longitude = 41.9o N; 87.5o W

Average Annual Temperature (oC) =10.3
Annual Temperature Range (oC) =29.2
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) =904.4
Summer Precipitation (mm) = 545.5
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 358.9
Geographic Distribution

Warm Summer Subtype

Eastern and Midwestern U.S. from Atlantic coast to 100th meridian.
east central Europe.
northern China.
northern Korea.
 
Cool Summer Subtype
New England, Great Lakes region.
south and central Canada. Characteristics

Warm Summer Subtype:

Hot humid summers; occasional winter cold waves.
Large annual temperature ranges.
Weather variability.

Cool Summer Subtype:

Moderate summers; long cold winters.
Large annual temperature ranges.
Variable weather.
Warm Summer Subtype
Eastern and Midwestern U.S. from Atlantic coast to
100th meridian.
Characteristics
east central Europe.
northern China.
Warm Summer Subtype:
northern Korea.
Hot humid summers; occasional winter cold
 
waves.
Cool Summer Subtype
Large annual temperature ranges.
New England, Great Lakes region.
Weather variability.
south and central Canada.
Scandinavia, eastern Europe, Russia
Cool Summer Subtype:
Moderate summers; long cold winters.
Controlling Factors
Large annual temperature ranges.
Cyclonic, polar front storm systems.
Variable weather.
Prevailing westerlies dominate.
Less precipitation than warm summer subtype.
Continentality;
Polar anticyclone in winter.
cP, mT, mP modified, cA (rare but on poleward
limits) air masses
 Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb)

Latitude/Longitude = 49.1o N; 123.06o W Latitude/Longitude =51.3oN; .07o W

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = 9.8
Annual Temperature Range (oC) =16
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) =1048
Summer Precipitation (mm) = 277
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 771
Average Annual Temperature (oC) = 10.4
Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 14
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 595
Summer Precipitation (mm) = 295
Winter Precipitation (mm) =300
 Geographic Distribution
Coastal Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and
southern Alaska
Southern Chile; interior South Africa
southeast Australia and New Zealand
northwest Europe

Controlling Factors
West coast location; year round influence of the
Westerlies.
Warm ocean currents along some coasts.
Windward orographic influence in North America.
Located further inland in Europe due to east - west
orientation of mountains.

Characteristics
Mild winters, mild summers.
Low annual temperature range.
Heavy cloud cover; high humidity.
Frequent cyclonic storms, with prolonged rain, drizzle and fog.
 Midlatitude Desert Climate (BWk)

Latitude/Longitude = 32.65o N; 114.6o W

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = 22.8
Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 20.5
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 79.3
Summer Precipitation (mm) = 30.6
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 48.7
Geographic Distribution
inner Asia
(interior) western U.S.
 
Controlling Factors
Continentality often linked to rain shadow.
Subtropical high pressure or high pressure ridging.
cT air mass during summer.
mTs air masse; cP air masses especially on northern limits.

Characteristics
Aridity; low relative humidity.
Irregular rainfall.
High percentage of sunshine.
Larger temperature range than Tropical Desert.
More precipitation than Tropical Desert.
 Midlatitude Steppe (BSk)

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = 6.1

Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 35.5
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 404.6
Summer Precipitation (mm) =362.8
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 44.1
 Geographic Distribution
Inner Asia;
Western U.S.
 
Controlling Factors
Essentially the same as deserts;
Transitional to humid climates;
Leeward orographic influence (rainshadow)

Characteristics
Semiarid
Rainfall distribution similar to nearest humid climate
Temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and continentality
Larger temperature range than Tropical Steppe
More precipitation than Tropical Steppe
 Subarctic Climate (Dfc, Dfd)

Latitude/Longitude = 62.1o N; 129.49o W

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = -10.08
Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 63
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) =213
Summer Precipitation (mm) = 157
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 56
Geographical Distribution
Northern N. America from Newfoundland to Alaska;
Northern Eurasia from Scandinavia through most of Siberia.
Virtually nonexistent in the Southern Hemisphere.

 Controlling Factors
Location in the higher middle latitudes (50o to 70o ).
Westerlies in summer; strong polar anticyclone and Easterlies in winter.
Occasional cyclonic storms.
Extreme continentality.
cP, cA, mP air masses

Characteristics
Brief, cool summers; long, bitterly cold winters.
Largest annual temperature ranges.
Lowest temperatures outside of Antarctica.
Tundra Climate (ET)

Latitude/Longitude = 71.2o N; 156o W

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = -12.7o
Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 32o
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 110
Summer Precipitation (mm) = 74
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 36
 Geographic Distribution
Arctic ocean border lands of North America;
Greenland and Eurasia;
Antarctic Peninsulas;
some polar islands.

 
Controlling Factors
Location in the high latitudes;
Subsidence and divergence of the polar anticylone
Arctic front cyclones
cA, mP, cP

Characteristics
"Summer-less"; at least 9 months average below freezing.
Low evaporation; precipitation usually below 10 in.
Ice Cap Climate (EF)

Latitude/Longitude = 77o S; 166o E

Average Annual Temperature (oC) = -17.0
Annual Temperature Range (oC) = 23
Total Annual Precipitation (mm) = 7.8
Summer Precipitation (mm) = 3.7
Winter Precipitation (mm) = 4.1
Geographic Distribution
Antarctica
interior Greenland
Permanently frozen portions of the Arctic Ocean and associated islands

Controlling Factors
Location in the interior of high latitude land masses.
Year-round influence of polar anticyclone.
Ice cover - high albedo
cP, cA air masses

Characteristics
Summerless; all months below freezing.
World's coldest temperatures.
Extremely small amount of precipitation.
Windy
 Name of Conventional Average
Cloud types Notes
cloud types symbols heights
Stratus St 800m High fogs
Low clouds 
(average higher level Heavy
Nimbostratus Ns 1000m
2000m; average lower showers
level near the soil)
Stratocumulus Sc 1500m  
Average clouds  
(average higher level Altocumulus Ac 3500m  
 6000m; average lower
level 2000m)
Altostratus As 4000m  

Cirrocumulus Cc 7000m  
High clouds Forming
(average lower level Cirrostratus Cs 8000m
halos
6000m)
Not hiding
Cirrus Ci 9000m
the sun
Clouds
Vertical clouds
Cumulus Cu 18000m formed by
ascent of air
Clouds
Cumulonimbus Cb 20000m formed by
ascent of air
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