GTS Chapter 8 WS

Urban Transportation
CHAPTER 8
Copyright © 1998-2020, Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University,
Hempstead, NY, 11549 USA.
Jean-Paul.Rodrigue@hofstra.edu
You may use the figures within for educational purposes only. No modification or redistribution permitted.
For more information: https://transportgeography.org/
Copyright © 1998-2020, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be
published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.
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Copyright © 1998-2020, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot
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Table of Contents
• Transportation and Urban Form
• Transportation and Land Use
• Urban Mobility
• Urban Transport Challenges
Transportation and Urban
Form
Urban Hierarchy
Hamlet Small collection of homes – population 10-100
Village Rural in character?
Population less than 10,000
Urban area Defined by land use? E.g. 75% built up; by function?
Town Larger than a village but smaller than a city
With town charter.
Less than 100,000 population?
City Legal status in some countries. Over 100,000?
Conurbation Urban area incorporating adjacent centres e.g. former free-standing towns and villages. After Geddes 1915
Metropolis Large urban agglomeration, usually over 1 million
Megacity Urban metropolis over 10 million

Megalopolis Chain of adjacent metropolitan areas. After Mumford 1938 The Culture of Cities
World or global city A global centre for finance, culture, political influence (Sassen 1990s)
Eperopolis ‘Continental city’ (Doxiadis, 1968)
Perspectives about the Urban Spatial Structure: From Dichotomy to Continuum
Dichotomy Continuum
Urban
EMR
Rural Rural Metropolis
Urban Towns
Secondary cities
Villages
MP
EMR: Extended Metropolitan Region MP: Megalopolis
Rural Urban 10,000,000

1,000,000
50,000 100,000
100 5,000 Megalopolis
EMR
Hamlet Village Town
City Metropolis
Megacity
Demographic Transition
Phase
Birth Rate
Death Rate
Total Population
Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV
World’s Largest Cities, 1850
Glasgow
Moscow
Manchester
Calcutta
Naples
Liverpool
Vienna
Philadelphia
Berlin
Saint Petersburg
Suzhou
Tokyo
Mumbai
New York
Hangzhou
Istanbul
Guangzhou
Paris
Beijing
London
0.0 500,000.0 1,000,000.0 1,500,000.0 2,000,000.0 2,500,000.0
Liverpool
Xian
Glasgow
Boston
Calcutta (Kolkata)
Moscow
Birmingham
Philadelphia
Manchester
St. Petersburg
Tokyo
Vienna
Chicago
Berlin
Paris
New York
London
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Millions
Population, Selected Units, 1880-2009
1,400,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000
Western Europe
United States
China
600,000 India
Japan
400,000
200,000
0
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Global Population (1950-2010) and Growth Scenarios, 2010-2050
12,000,000,000.0
10,000,000,000.0
8,000,000,000.0
Base
6,000,000,000.0 High
Low
Medium
4,000,000,000.0
2,000,000,000.0
0.0
50
00
00
10
20
30
40
60
70
80
90
10
20
30
40
50
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
World Urban Population, 1950-2015 with Projections to 2050 (in billions)
7000000
World
More developed regions
6000000 Less developed regions
5000000
Urban Population (in billions)
4000000
3000000
2000000
1000000
0
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
Metropolitan Areas of More than 12 Million Inhabitants, 2015
Moskva (Moscow) 12.04
Lagos 12.23
Los Angeles 12.34
Manila 12.86 1950
Rio de Janeiro 12.94 1975
Chongqing 13.37 2015
Tianjin 13.58
Istanbul 14.12
Karachi 14.28
Kolkata (Calcutta) 14.42
Buenos Aires 14.70
Dhaka 17.59
Beijing 18.42
New York 18.64
Al-Qahirah (Cairo) 18.82
Osaka-Kobe 19.30
São Paulo 20.26
Mumbai (Bombay) 20.88
Mexico City 21.34
Shanghai 23.48
Delhi 25.86
Tokyo 37.26
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Cities of more than 8 million, 1950-2010
1950 1970 1990 2000 2010
Developed countries
New York New York Tokyo Tokyo
London London New York New York
Tokyo Los Angeles Los Angeles
Los Angeles Moscow Moscow
Paris Osaka Osaka
Paris Paris
Developing countries
None Shanghai Mexico City Mexico City
Mexico City Sao Paulo Sao Paulo
Buenos Aires Shanghai Shanghai
Beijing Calcutta Calcutta
Sao Paulo Buenos Aires Bombay
Bombay Beijing
Seoul Jakarta
Beijing Delhi
Rio de Janeiro Buenos Aires
Tianjin Lagos
Jakarta Tianjin
Cairo Seoul
Delhi Rio de Janeiro
Manila Dhaka
Cairo
Manila
Karachi
Bangkok
Istanbul
Teheran
Bangalore
Lima
Percentage of Urban Population by Region, 1950-2030
Asia
Latin America
North America
1950
1975
Europe 2000
2030
Africa
World
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Urban Population by Region, 1950-2030 (in millions)
5 000 000 000
4 000 000 000
3 000 000 000 Asia

Latin America
North America
Europe
2 000 000 000
Africa
1 000 000 000
0
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Cities and Connectivity
Function Main Mode Nexus
Trade
Production and Water transport. Port terminals.
Distribution Railways Heavy industries.
Highways Rail terminals and railyards.
Manufacturing clusters.
Distribution clusters.
Mobility and Highways Central stations.
Accessibility Transit Shopping districts.
Transactions Telecommunications Financial / management districts.
Air transport
Cities and Connectivity
Production and Distribution

Air link Airport District Heavy Industries
Port districts.
Heavy industries. Port
Railyards. District
Manufacturing clusters.
Manufacturing
Distribution clusters.
District
Mobility and Accessibility
Central / transit stations.
Shopping districts. CBD
Airport districts.
Transactions
Financial / management districts.
Built area Road / transit link

Connectivity node Rail link Logistics Zone
Economic node Maritime link
Transportation, Urban Form and Spatial Structure
Spatial imprint
Infrastructures
Urban Form
Transportation Modes
Users
Spatial interaction
Urban Spatial Structure
Types of Urban Spatial Structures
Centralized
A B
C D
Decentralized
Clustered Dispersed
One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes
Streetcar line
Freeway
Walking
10 km Streetcar
Cycling
Automobile
Automobile with freeways
Evolution of the Spatial Structure of a City
A B C
Core activities Peripheral activities Major transport axis

Central activities Central area
Possible Urban Mobility Patterns
Organized
Primary flow Secondary flow
Disorganized
Monocentric Polycentric
Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form in North American and European Cities
North America Europe
IV
II
I I
II III IV
III
I - Walking-horsecar era (1800-1890) III - Automobile era (1920-1945) Streetcar line

II - Streetcar era (1890-1920) IV - Highway era (1945-) Highway
Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form in European Cities (to be redesigned)
Built up area prior to introduction of mechanical transport

Development consequent on steam railways
Development consequent on tramways
Development consequent on motor buses
Development consequent on private car
Evolution of Urban Densities in North America and Europe
North America Europe
r(NA) r(E)
Density
Density
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Distance Distance
1 Prior to mechanized transport

2 Early forms of mechanized transport (tramways)
3 Diffusion of motor vehicles (buses, automobiles)
4 Suburbanization
Urban Transport Development Paths
Public Main development paths B. Transit-Oriented

it C ities
Path divergence Trans
Ownership of Passenger Modes
ns it 2
r a
/ P arat
Bus Cities ffic
Bus Traffic Complete Tra C. Hybrid Cities
Saturation
Walking 1 Saturation
Cities
Non
-M
Tran otorize 3 A. Car Dependency
spo d
rt Motor ar Cities
ized C
Cities Traffic
Saturation
Private
Low Urban Mobility Level High
Population Density of the World's Largest Metropolitan Areas, 2012
Population Density by Distance from City Center, Selected Cities
350
Beijing (1990)
300 Paris (1990)
Bangkok (1988)
Jakarta (1990)
250
Barcelona (1990)
New York (1990)
Persons per hectare
200
Los Angeles (1990)
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Distance form city center (km)

American Population Living in Metropolitan Areas and Their Central Cities and Suburbs, 1910-2010 (%)
90
80
70
60 51
46.2 50
44.8
50 37.6
30.9
23.3
40 15.3
13.8
30 9.2
7.1
20
30.8 32.5 32.8 32.3 31.4 30 31.3 30.3 33
24.8
10 21.2
0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Central Cities Suburbs

Share of Housing Units Equipped with Air Conditioning by Year of Construction, United States, 2015
2010 to 2015
2000 to 2009
1990 to 1999
1980 to 1989
1970 to 1979
1960 to 1969
1950 to 1959
Before 1950
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Use central air-conditioning equipment Use individual air-conditioning units Do not use air-conditioning equipment
Share of Housing Units Equipped with Air Conditioning by Region in the United States, 1980-2015
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
Northeast
50% Midwest
South
40% West
30%
20%
10%
0%
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Density and Car Use in North American Cities, 1991
Urban density (pers./ha)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000 11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000
Car use per capita (km)
Density and Car Use in Selected Global Cities, 2000s
100
90
80
70
Share of Car Use for Commuting
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Urban Density (People per hectare)
Service Attributes of Urban Transportation Modes
Speed (km/hr)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Private car on freeway
Maximum
Private car on conventional road capacity
Light rapid transport system
Urban railway
Bus using reserved lane on highways
Bus on conventional road network
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
Capacity (people per hour)
Urban Modes and Distance Decay
Number of trips
Cycling and walking
Motorized
A B C Distance
Performance by Urban Transport Mode
Performance Index
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
1/3 full ligh rail/metro
Full light rail/metro
1/3 full bus
Full bus Space required per person (sqr m)

Average Speed (km/hr)
Car with 1 person Performance index (speed / space)
Fully occupied car
Cyclist
Pedestrian
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Km/hr or sqr m
Type I - Completely Motorized Network
Main Road
Highway
Activity center
Type II - Weak Center
Main Road
Highway
Transit line
Activity center
Type III - Strong Center
Main Road
Highway
Transit line
Activity center
Type IV - Traffic Limitation
Main Road
Highway
Transit line
Activity center
Transportation and the Urban Spatial Structure
Type I Type II
Main Road
Highway
Transit line
Activity center
Type III Type IV

Street Network Types
Conventional Grid Curvilinear Loop Pattern & Conventional

Pattern (c 1900) Beginning of Cul-de-Sacs (1930-1950) Cul-de-Sac Pattern
(since 1950)
Arterial road Local street
Scale and Urban Spatial Structure
Community
Components of the spatial structure

• Streets
• Basic services
• Residences
District
Community
• Main roads
• Employment zones
• Municipal services
City
District
• Highway and transit
systems
• Major transport
Scale
terminals (ports and

airports)
The Rationale of a Ring Road
Spatial Structure Accessibility

Before
Avoiding the congested 5
central area
10
A 5 10 10 5
10 B
5
City A to B = 30
Center
Secondary After
Center 5
10 10
10
A
5 10 10 5
Structuring 10 B
Suburban 10 10
development 5
A to B = 20
Suburban Development along a Highway Interchange
Retail
Office
Industrial
Residential
Highway
Railway
Core
Transportation and Land Use
Transportation, Activity Systems and Land Use
Spatial
imprint
Infrastructures
Urban Form
Modes Transportation
Users
Spatial
interaction
Labor
Customers Activity
Suppliers
Spatial
location
Land Use Pattern

Transportation, Activity Systems and Land Use
Spatial imprint
Infrastructures
Urban Form
Transportation Modes
Users
Spatial interaction
Labor
Activity Customers
Suppliers
Spatial location
Land Use Pattern

Formal and Functional Land Use
Formal Land Use Functional Land Use
Built up Institutional
Paved Commercial
Other Light industrial
Residential
Roadway
Parking
Land Use Footprint in Selected Central Areas
Los Angeles
Washington
Chicago
Houston
Phoenix
Memphis Built
Roads
Toronto
Parks
New York
Paris
Vienna
Tokyo
Buenos Aires
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Types of Urban Expansion
Existing build up
Infilling
Extension
Linear development
Sprawl
Large-scale projects
Relationships between Land Uses
Land Use Relationships

Commuting
Home to work
Core activities
Professional Movements
Central activities
Work to work
Peripheral activities
Personal Movements
Central area
Shopping
Social interactions Passengers
Freight
Distribution
Procurement
Commercial deliveries
Home deliveries
Transport Infrastructure and Activity Location
Bus
INFRASTRUCTURE
Rail Highway Subway
LAND USE Freight Based Mixed Population Based
Terminals Commercial Residential
ACTIVITY Manufacturing Institutional
Distribution
Transportation / Land Use Interactions
Transportation
Landscape
Economic processes
Demographic processes Activity Patterns Accessibility
Technological changes
Public policy
Land Use
The Transport / Land Use System
Infrastructures Friction of Distance Spatial Accumulation

(Supply) (Impedance) (Demand)
Transport System Spatial Interactions Land Use
• Spatial interaction models • Economic base theory

• Traffic assignment models • Distance decay • Location theory
• Transport capacity parameters • Traffic generation and
• Modal split attraction models
Von Thunen's Regional Land Use Model
Isolated State Modified Conditions
ter
en
Central city
b-c
Su
Navigable river
Market gardening and milk production
Firewood and lumber production

Crop farming without fallow
Crop framing, fallow and pasture
Three-field system
Livestock farming
Inference of Von Thunen’s Model to the Continental United States
Forest
Dairy Wheat
Dairy
Forest Wheat Corn and Vegetables Beef Cattle Vegetables
Soybeans and Sheep
Beef Cattle Corn and
and Sheep Soybeans
Specialty
Cotton and Crops
Tobacco
Cotton and
Tobacco
Specialty
Assumptions Crops
Assumptions 1. New York City the only market
1. New York City the only market 2. Crops ranked by rent paying ability
2. Crops ranked by rent paying ability 3. No terrain variation
3. No terrain or climatic variation 4. Climatic variation considered
A B
Burgess’ Urban Land Use Model
Chicago, 1920s Model
s
ing
ell
Dw
I - Loop (downtown)
ily
nt ant
am
me igr
F
ttle m
le
Se Im
ng
II - Factory zone
Si
nd
co
Se
Si ittle
III - Zone of transition
y
L
cil
Ghetto LOOP
IV - Working class zone
Ap
Two Plan
ar
V - Residential zone
tm
Area
en
tH
ou
se
VI - Commuter zone
s
Black Belt
Residential District
Bungalow
Section
Sector and Nuclei Urban Land Use Models
Sector Nuclei
2 3 3
4 1
2
3
3 5
3 4
1 3 3 7
5
3
6
4
2 3
9 8
1 CBD 6 Heavy manufacturing

2 Wholesale and light manufacturing 7 Sub business district
3 Lower-class residential 8 Residential suburb
4 Middle-class residential 9 Industrial suburb
5 Upper-class residential
The Hybrid Land Use Model: Transportation and the Formation of Urban Landscapes
Pre-Industrial (Concentric) Streetcar (Sector) Bicycle (Concentric)
Centers
CBD
Walking Horsecar
Railways
Automobile (Concentric) Highway (Concentric and Nodal)

Suburb Towns
Roads
Main roads
Highways
Suburb
New suburb
Basic Land Economics
Price
T
(les oward
s la s d
Sup
p ly nd, own m and
hig tow
her n De
pric
e)
P2
P1
To
(mo wards
P3 re l the
and pe
, lo riph
we
r pr ery
ice
)
Quantity of Land
Q2 Q1 Q3
Land Rent and Land Use
1. Bid rent curves 2. Overlay of bid rent curves

Rent
B. Industry/
A. Retailing commercial
Distance
City limits
C. Apartments D. Single houses
3. Land use
Land Rent Theory and Rent Curve
Model Rural Urban

Rent = 1/S
1 km
5 km
S = π D2 10 km
Market gardening & dairying CBD
S = 3.14
Firewood & timber Commerce & industry
S = 75.40
Extensive farming High density residential
S = 235.62 Animal farming Low density residential
Contemporary Modifications of the Land Rent Theory
Rent
A B C D E A. Conventional CBD
B. Commercial / industry / warehousing
C. High to medium density residential
D. Sub center
E. Suburbia
Cellular Automata Land Use Dynamics
Urban land use

t=1 t=2 t=3 Non-urban land use
t=0
Protected land use
Highway
Basic Urban Dynamics
Transport Investments Accessibility Economic Impacts
 Terminals  Passengers  Economic growth

 Infrastructures  Freight  Agglomeration / clustering
 Modes  Information  Productivity
 Employment
 Investment
Feedback
Dynamics of Urban Change
Components Pace of Change

Transport Network Very Slow
Freight Transport Commuting Very Fast
Employment Population Fast
Workplaces Housing Slow
Land Use Very Slow
Urban Mobility
Transit Technology and Urban Development, Late 19th – Early 20th Century
City Center
Urban Development
New Urban Development
Commercial Strips
Rail Station
Intercity (Commuter) Railroad
Trackside suburb Streetcar Line
Suitability of Travel Modes
Mode Limitations Most Appropriate Uses
Requires physical ability.
Walking Limited distance and carrying capacity. Short trips by physically able people.
Difficult or unsafe in some areas.
Requires bicycle and physical ability. Short to medium length trips by physically able people on
Bicycle
Limited distance and carrying capacity. suitable routes.
Taxi Relatively high cost per mile. Infrequent trips over short and medium distance.
Fixed Route Transit Destinations and times limited. Short to medium distance trips along busy corridors.
Paratransit High cost and limited service. Travel for disabled people.
Requires driving ability and automobile.
Auto driver Travel by people who can drive and afford an automobile.
High fixed costs.
Requires cooperative automobile driver.
Ridesharing Trips that the driver would take anyway (commuting).
Consumes driver’s time for deviations.
Vehicle Rentals Requires convenient and affordable vehicle rentals services. Occasional use by drivers who do not own an automobile.
Requires riding ability and motorcycle.
Motorcycle Travel by people who can ride and afford a motorcycle.
Average fixed costs.
Telecommuting Requires IT equipment and skills. Alternative to some types of trips.
Space Required per Passenger on Road Transport Modes
Square Meter per Passenger
Highway Driving
Arterial Driving
Cycling
Walking
Public Transport
0 50 100 150 200 250

Largest Subway Systems in the World by Annual Ridership, c2010 (in millions)
São Paulo 754
St Petersburg 777
Osaka 837
Cairo 837
London 1,170
Hong Kong 1,378
Mexico City 1,487
Paris 1,506
New York 1,640
Guangzhou 1,640
Shanghai 2,101
Beijing 2,180
Moscow 2,389
Seoul 2,429
Tokyo 3,161
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500
World’s Main Subway Systems, c2010
Mean Travel Time to Work for Selected American Cities (in minutes), 1980-1990
National Total
Boston
Detroit
Houston
Chicago
Washington
San Francisco
New York
Los Angeles
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
1980 1990
Components of an Urban Transit System
Subway station
X
X
X X X X X Transfer
X Transit rail station

X X X X
X Bus stop
X
X Express stop
X
X Shuttle stop
X X
X
X Taxi service boundary
X X
X
Paratransit
Distance between Access Points to Public Transit
Light Rail
Commuter Rail
Bus (express)
Bus (conventional)
Metro / Subway
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Kilometers
Private Vehicle and Public Transport Market Share, 1990/91
Private Vehicle Market Share
100% American Cities
90%
European Cities
80%
70%
Asian Cities
60%
50%
40%
30%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Public Transport Market Share

Trips by Public Transport in the United States, 1903-2018
25,000 100%
90%
20,000 80%
70%
Transit Market Share

15,000 60%
Millions of Trips
50%
10,000 40%
30%
5,000 20%
10%
0 0%
19021917192019231926192919321935193819411944194719501953195619591962196519681971197419771980198319861989199219951998200120042007201020132016
Bus Heavy Rail Light Rail Streetcar Public Transport Market Share
Transit and Urban Form
Adaptive Cities Adaptive Transit Hybrids
Transit and Urban Land Use Impacts
High
Average
Transit Use
Low
Land Use Impacts Accessibility Convergence Integration
Accessibility along a Transit Line
30 min.
Stop Access Time
Time
Transit
5 min.
Stops
Ra Rb
25 min. 20 15 Rc
10 Rd 5 Re
a b c d e
5 min. 10 15 20 25
Types of Urban Movements
Movement Type Pattern Dominant Time Destination
Pendular Structured Morning and afternoon Localized (employment)
Professional Varied Workdays Localized
Personal Structured Evening Varied with some foci
Touristic Seasonal Day Highly localized
Distribution Structured Nighttime / Early morning Localized
Average Commuting Time (One Way), Selected Metropolitan Areas
Dallas 26.5
Milan 26.7
Seattle 26.9
Barcelona 28.0
Los Angeles 28.1
San Francisco 28.7
Boston 28.9
Vancouver 30.0
Chicago 30.7
Montreal 31.0
Berlin 31.6
Toronto 33.0
Madrid 33.0
Paris 33.7
Sydney 34.0
Tokyo 34.5
New York 34.6
Stockholm 35.0
London 37.0
Hong Kong 40.0
Sao Paulo 42.8
Shanghai 50.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Minutes
Income and Urban Transport Demand
12
10
8
Trips per Person per Day
Business
6 Social
Shopping
Work
0
Low Average High Very High
Main Purposes of Passenger Trips in the United States, 2001
1%
8%
5%
34%
Work
12% Shopping
School
Business (Work)
Business (Personnal)
Recreational
Medical
Social
Other
11%
3%
13%
13%
Average Annual Person Trips per Household by Trip Purpose, United States, 1983-2017
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500 Other
Social / Recreation
Education
2,000 Personal
Shopping
1,500 Business (Work)
Work Related
1,000
500
0
1983 1990 1995 2001 2009 2017
Main Purposes of Transit Trips in the United States, 2007
11%
3%
9%
Work
School
Social
Shopping
7% Medical
Personal/Other
59%
11%
Typical Activity Space of an Urban Working Adult
1:30 AM 10:45 PM 10:30 PM

Shopping mall Delivery Return Delivery
2:30 AM
Return
8:30 PM
Carpool 7:00 PM 1:30 PM
Carpool 5:30 PM Walk
Restaurant Passenger
Drive alone Trip
Freight
Home Work 12:30 PM Home-based

7:00 AM Walk
Garbage Work-based
pickup 8:00 AM 8:15 AM
Carpool Drive alone
10:00 AM
10:00 AM 10:05 AM Parcel
Parcel School Parcel Drop off
Delivery (drop off child) Pickup
Urban Travel by Purpose and by Time of the Day in a North American Metropolis
25
Share of Trips
20
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of the Day

Work Social / Recreation Shopping Total trips
Time of Departure for Home to Work Trips, United States
25%
20%
Share of Home to Work Trips
15%
10%
5%
0%
12:00 am to 5:00 am to 6:00 am to 7:00 am to 7:30 am to 8:00 am to 8:30 am to 9:00 am to 10:00 am to 4:00 pm to
4:59 am 5:59 am 6:59 am 7:29 am 7:59 am 8:29 am 8:59 am 9:59 am 3:59 pm 11:59 pm
1985 1999 2003 2009

Typical Car and Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day
14
12
10
8
Truc
ks
6
0
1AM 2AM 3AM 4AM 5AM 6AM 7AM 8AM 9AM 10AM 11AM 12PM 1PM 2PM 3PM 4PM 5PM 6PM 7PM 8PM 9PM 10PM 11PM 12AM
Weekly Distribution of Transit Scheduled Trips and Uber Pickups, Los Angeles
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Uber Pickups
Transit Trips
Midnight Noon Midnight Noon Midnight Noon Midnight Noon Midnight Noon Midnight Noon Midnight Noon Midnight
Typical Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day
14
12
10
0
12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00 11:00
AM AM AM AM AM AM AM AM AM AM AM AM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM
International Journey to Work Travel Times by Population Density, 1990
250
200
150
100
50
32.6 30.9 29.1
24.1 22.4 26.8
0
Over 20,000 10,000-19,999 5,000-9,999 2,500-4,999 Under 2,500 Average
Average Travel to Work Time (Minutes) Annual Hours Spent Commuting

Home-to-Work Trips Modes, United States, 1985-2016
100%
90% 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.6 4.6 4.4

4.9 5.1
10.0 9.1
12.0 11.0 12.2 9.7 9.0
80% 14.0
70%
Worked at home
60%
Other means
Walks only
50%
Bicycle or motorcycle
40% 79.3 Mass transit
76.0 77.0 77.5 75.7 76.6 76.3
72.0 Carpool
30% Drives self
20%
10%
0%
1985 1989 1993 1997 2000 2005 2010 2016
Modal Split, Journey to Work Trips, Selected Cities
Toronto
Tokyo
Singapore
Shanghai
Rome
Paris
New York
Melbourne
Madrid
Los Angeles
London Walking
Hamburg Cycling
Delhi Public Transit
Dallas Private Vehicle
Chicago
Budapest
Bogota
Brussels
Berlin
Beijing
Barcelona
Auckland
Amsterdam
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Mobility Gaps in Urban Areas
Employment center
Car-based mobility
Transit-based mobility
Mobile individual
Mobility constrained individual
Daily Person Miles of Travel per Person by Age and Gender, 2017
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Under 16 16 to 20 21 to 35 36 to 65 More than 65
Men Women
Work-Related Mobility in the United States
35%
25% 25%
35%
2%
5%
Central City
5% 5% 2% 2%
25% 5% 1%
25%
Central city > Suburb

Central city > Central city
Suburb > Suburb
Exurbia > Suburb

Central city > Exurbia
Suburb > Central city
Exurbia > Central city
Suburb > Exurbia

1%
2%
Suburbia
Exurbia
Percentage of Workers Using Public Transportation, Selected Urban Areas, 2000
Washington Central City

Metropolitan Area
San Francisco
Philadelphia
New York
Los Angeles
Dallas-Fort Worth
Chicago
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Source of Revenue for Some American Transit Systems, 2008
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
r k
to n ta u is er NC
Yo ing lan Lo nv e,
w h At St
. De
lo tt
Ne as ar
W Ch
Revenue from fares Revenue from subsidies

Urban Mobility Index, 2017
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
ow
ran r
na
Br e
Mo e
Si on
Sh re
an
Mu a
re
Ho Ch ta
i M du
Mo o
xic n
dh
Ba n
d
sa
l
Ki ai
Ba bai
hi
hin l
lm
ai
Ho i
La els
en ity
ty
eJ s
ou
W trea
am
n F ipu
eir
n
gto
hra
da
u
Me sto
o d ire
dri
ric
ak
b
gh
o
rac
alo
lka
Ci
Bu o C
ho
en
ag
an
uh
Ch eng
ya
b
ha
cis
sc
Se
Du
m
s
ap
Zu
Ma
an
gh
S a Ja
Mi
Lis
Os
Ri s A
an
us
Te
n
u
inh
W
Ko
Pr
ng
Ka
Vi
Ri
us
ns
k
ng
oc
o
as
St
Urban Transport Challenges
Percentage of Households by Number of Vehicles, 1960-2017
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
3 or more vehicles
50% 2 vehicles
1 vehicle
40% 0 vehicles
30%
20%
10%
0%
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2017
Land Area Consumed by the Car in Selected Countries, 1999
Land area per capita (in square meters)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
268 Sweden 0.59% % of total land area used by the car

Land area per capita (sqr. meters)
United
72 Kingdom 1.76%
91 Germany 2.15%
173 France 1.87%
104 Japan 3.51%
87 Mexico 0.45%
734 Canada 0.25%
573United States 1.74%
-0.5% 0.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 2.5% 3.0% 3.5% 4.0%
Percentage of total land area used by the car
Central Business District Monthly Parking Rate, 2011
Boston $438.00
Calgary $486.34
Birmingham $496.44
Milan $517.61
New York $541.00
Stockholm $546.41
Copenhagen $567.13
Brisbane $568.89
Vienna $575.12
Amsterdam $586.62
Melbourne $598.39
Oslo $612.15
Sydney $695.31
Geneva $704.70
Perth $717.43
Rome $718.90
Tokyo $744.00
Hong Kong $744.72
Zurich $822.15
London $1,083.59
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Geographical Paradoxes behind Urban Transport Problems
Mono-functional Congestion Automobile dependency
North American Suburb

Level of Externality
European City
Japanese City
Level of Specialization Level of Agglomeration Road Footprint
Factors Contributing to the Growth of Driving in the United States
13%
17%
Increase in population
Increase in trip length
Increase in number of trips
17% Decrease in vehicle occupancy
Switch to driving
35%
18%
Automobile Dependency, Space / Time Relationships and Modal Choice
Automobile Dependency
Car only TIME High Density Low
A. High High
Automobile
A
Worst case
75% Dependency
Congestion
B. Medium B
Low
50% Mixed
C
C. Low Best case
Transit
Transportation
alternatives
Centralized SPACE Dispersed
Spatial Structure
The Vicious Circle of Congestion
Congestion
Growth in length and Pressures to increase

number of movements capacity
Urban sprawl incited New capacity
Lower friction to mobility
Traffic Index, Selected Metropolitan Areas
100 Most Congested Highway Intersections in the United States, 2006
Average Number of Hours of Delay per Auto Commuter per Year, Selected American Cities, 1982-2017
140
120
100
Los Angeles
San Francisco
80
Chicago
New York
60 Phoenix
Miami
Atlanta
40 Washington
Dallas / Fort Worth
20
-
82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Travel Time Index per Year, Selected American Cities, 1982-2017
1.60
1.50
1.40 Los Angeles

San Francisco
Chicago
1.30 New York
Phoenix
Miami
1.20 Atlanta
Washington
Dallas / Fort Worth
1.10
1.00
82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
City Size and Travel Time Index, United States, 1982-2017
1.60
1.50
1.40
Travel Time Index
1.30
R² = 0.45
1.20
1.10
1.00
100 1,000 10,000
Urban Population (1,000s)

Home-to-Work Commute Profile, United States, 1977-2017
40
35
30
25
20 Average Length of Work Trips (miles)

Average Work Trips Travel Time (minutes)
Average Speed (Miles per Hour)
15
10
0
1977 1983 1990 1995 2001 2009 2017
Average Daily Commuting Time, selected Countries, 2015 (in minutes)
Italy 23
United States 25
Canada 26
Spain 33
Portugal 33
Austria 34
France 36
Denmark 38
Belgium 39
Sweden 40
Ireland 40
Luxembourg 40
Greece 40
Finland 41
Netherlands 44
Germany 45
UK 46
Japan 50
China 56
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Urban Density and Driving Speed, Selected Global Cities
De nsity (p eo ple p er squ are km )
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Average road speed (km per hour)

GDP Per Capita and Congestion Index, Selected Cities
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Congestion Index
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
GDP Per Capita (PPP)
Traffic Conditions in Major American Cities, 1982-2003 (2011 data
inconsistent)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
Extreme
Severe
50%
Heavy
Moderate
40%
Uncongested
30%
20%
10%
0%
1982 1990 1997 2003 2011
Parking Accumulation by Land Use by Time of the Day
Percent of Peak Parking
100
90
80
70
60
Residential
50 Office
Retail
40 Restaurant
30
20
10
0
6AM 7AM 8AM 9AM 10AM 11AM 12AM 1PM 2PM 3PM 4PM 5PM 6PM 7PM 8PM 9PM 10PM
Recurring Congestion
Morning Peak
Afternoon Peak
Congestion
Unused Capacity
Midnig 1AM 2AM 3AM 4AM 5AM 6AM 7AM 8AM 9AM 10AM 11AM Noon 1PM 2PM 3PM 4PM 5PM 6PM 7PM 8PM 9PM 10PM 11PM
ht
Traffic Capacity
Major Sources of Recurring and Non-Recurring Congestion
Congestion in the United States (hours by Cause) Congestion in Germany (hours by Cause)
5% 4%
5%
Recurring Congestion
15% Traffic Incidents 35% Recurring Congestion
30%
40% Work Zones Traffic Incidents
Weather Work Zones
Poor Signal Timing Other
10% Other
25% 32%
Average Hourly Traffic on George Washington Bridge, 2016
20,000
18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
2 AM 1A
M
2A
M
3A
M
4A
M
5A
M
6A
M
7A
M
8A
M
9A
M
0 AM 1 AM 2 PM 1P
M
2P
M
3P
M
4P
M
5P
M
6P
M
7P
M
8P
M
9P
M
0 PM 1 PM
1 1 1 1 1 1
Eastbound (To Manhattan) Westbound (To New Jersey) Total

Transit Use and Car Ownership in Selected Cities, 1993
% of work trips by transit
100
90
80
70
60 R² = 0.52
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Cars per 1,000 people
Farebox Recovery Ratio, Selected Transit Systems
Source of Revenue for Bus Operations, Europe, 2002
UK
Spain
Germany
Sweden
Greece
France
Denmark
Netherlands
Italy
Belgium
Austria
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Subsidies Commercial revenue

Fare Recovery Ratio of Selected Public Transit Systems, United States, 2010
Charlotte Area Transit System
Bi-State Development Agency (St. Louis)
Denver Regional Transportation District
Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority
Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (Boston)
Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority
New Jersey Transit Corporation
Chicago Transit Authority
MTA New York City Transit
San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit District
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

Transit Fare for the New York Subway, 1904-2015 (inflation adjusted)
3
2.5
2
Fare in 2015 Dollars
1.5
0.5
0
1904 1916 1920 1924 1928 1932 1936 1940 1944 1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012
Challenges of Urban Transit
Main transit line
High to medium density transit city
Low density suburb
Sprawl
Connectivity
Travel patterns serviced by urban transit
Travel patterns not serviced by urban transit

GTS Chapter 8 WS

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Urban Transportation

Metropolis Large urban agglomeration, usually over 1 million

Megacity Urban metropolis over 10 million

EMR: Extended Metropolitan Region MP: Megalopolis

Rural Urban 10,000,000

Phase I Phase II Phase III Phase IV

4 000 000 000

3 000 000 000 Asia

1 000 000 000

Production and Distribution

Built area Road / transit link

Urban Spatial Structure

Core activities Peripheral activities Major transport axis

North America Europe

I - Walking-horsecar era (1800-1890) III - Automobile era (1920-1945) Streetcar line

Built up area prior to introduction of mechanical transport

North America Europe

1 Prior to mechanized transport

Public Main development paths B. Transit-Oriented

Low Urban Mobility Level High

Distance form city center (km)

Central Cities Suburbs

Car use per capita (km)

Urban Density (People per hectare)

Private car on freeway

Light rapid transport system

Bus using reserved lane on highways

Bus on conventional road network

0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000

Capacity (people per hour)

Cycling and walking

1/3 full ligh rail/metro

Full light rail/metro

1/3 full bus

Full bus Space required per person (sqr m)

Fully occupied car

Type III Type IV

Conventional Grid Curvilinear Loop Pattern & Conventional

Components of the spatial structure

terminals (ports and

Spatial Structure Accessibility

Land Use Pattern

Land Use Pattern

Land Use Relationships

LAND USE Freight Based Mixed Population Based

Terminals Commercial Residential

ACTIVITY Manufacturing Institutional

Demographic processes Activity Patterns Accessibility

Infrastructures Friction of Distance Spatial Accumulation

Transport System Spatial Interactions Land Use

• Spatial interaction models • Economic base theory

Market gardening and milk production

Firewood and lumber production

Chicago, 1920s Model

1 CBD 6 Heavy manufacturing

Automobile (Concentric) Highway (Concentric and Nodal)

1. Bid rent curves 2. Overlay of bid rent curves

Model Rural Urban

S = 235.62 Animal farming Low density residential

Urban land use

Transport Investments Accessibility Economic Impacts

 Terminals  Passengers  Economic growth

Components Pace of Change