Knowledge :

Concept ,Nature,
Types, Theories of
Knowledge
 Classification

Explanation Generalization

Knowledge

Theory Laws
Nature
 infinite, dynamic, and continuously expanding
 a social product
 Popper sees knowledge as three worlds viz., physical, subjective
and objective knowledge.
 Knowledge utilisation is the ultimate goal, which gets the human being, the value
and
utility
 precise single definition of knowledge is impossible.
 Knowledge once parted to others, results in no loss to the person.
 Knowledge becomes obsolete
 Knowledge is a highly organised intellectual product of humans that includes personal
experience, skills, understanding of the different contexts in which we operate our
activities, assimilation of all these and recording all this in a form that could be
communicated to others. This communication of recorded experience, data, information,
etc. makes for further of growth.
 Knowledge is a process of manifestation.
 Knowledge helps to discover lasting values.
 Knowledge modifies the behaviour.
 Knowledge creates sound mind.
 Knowledge is an art and prepares a good citizen.
 Greek word gnosis meaning‘recognise’. We know what we recognise. This means that we
mentally process our experience, shaping it and giving it mental forms that we can identify.
So we recognise experience and bring it into the realm of knowledge.
Concept
 Knowledge is habitually defined as a belief that is true and justified.

 The philosopher Plato famously defined knowledge as "justified true belief".

 Knowledge is a familiarity, awareness of understanding of someone or something,

such as facts, information, descriptions, or skills, which acquired through
experiences

or education by perceiving, discovering or learning.

Knowledge

The whole of
The fact of
information what can be
knowing
learnt
 Theory of Knowledge" has been construed as a branch of philosophy known as
Epistemology. 'Epistemology' comes from the Greek words 'episteme' meaning Knowledge
and logos meaning discourse or science
 Knowledge is justified true belief
 Beliefs that merely happen to be true cannot be regarded as knowledge, because knowledge is
justified belief.
 knowledge is expressed in propositions.
 A meaningful sentence that conveys truth or meaning is said to be a proposition.
 According to John Hospers, there are two requirements for knowing:

(a) objective requirement (p must be true)

(b) subjective one (one must believe p)
a) A proposition (p) must be true.

One cannot "know" p if p is not true . one can wonder whether p is true, and yet p may be false;one can
believe that p is true, though p is false and so on.
believing, wishing, wondering and hoping are all psychological states where as knowing is not merely a
mental state.
the truth requirement , though necessary is not sufficient.

one may not know certain concepts even though they are true.

b) Not only must a proposition (p) be true; we must believe that a proposition
(p) is true

one must have certain attitude towards p - not merely wondering or speculating about p, but positively
believing that p is true.
"I know p’’ implies "I believe p" and "he knows p" implies "he believes p", for believing is a defining
characteristic of knowing.
Types :
According to Mahatama Gandhi two broad classes of
knowledge
1. Physical Knowledge
2. Spiritual Knowledge

3 R’s of
knowledge

Reading Writing Reasoning

3H’s

Hand- Head-
Heart- Spiritual
Psychomotor Cognitive
Knowledge
Knowledge Knowledge
 Based on the way or manner in which it is obtained, knowledge can be classified
under three heads :
1. A priori Knowledge :
 The literal meaning of a priori is from before or from earlier.
 A priori is the knowledge that is attained independently of experience.
 It means there are certain assumptions that one can take for granted.
 This knowledge is non-empirical. (empirical means originating or based on observation or experience)
 Knowledge whose truth or falsity can be decided before or without recourse to experience. Knowledge that is a
‘priori’ has universal validity and once recognized as true (through the use of pure reason) does not require any
further evidence .
 Superior to all other knowledge
 Known as analytical propositions
 Ex : Logical and mathematical truths
 It’s truth can be determined solely by an analysis of the meaning of the words in the sentence expressing it and
whose truth or falsity can be decided by pure reason without recourse to verification with experience.
2.A posteriori knowledge

 A posteriori literally mean from what comes later or from what comes after.

 It is the knowledge which is gained through experience and observation.

 This knowledge is empirical, arrived at afterword.

 Truths of physics, chemistry, and biology are instances of a posteriori knowledge.

 A posteriori judgment adds to the knowledge. But the knowledge yielded can sometimes be
uncertain or problematic. This kind of knowledge is gained by first having experience and then
using logic and reflection to derive understanding from it..

 In philosophy term, a posteriori is sometimes used interchangeably with empirical knowledge

based on observation.
 This is the knowledge of the scientific method stressing accurate observation and exact description.
 For example: Ice melts. Snow is white.
 These propositions give us factual information whose truth or falsity can be decided only through
observation and verification. These are called synthetic propositions.
 It is believed a priori knowledge is more reliable than a posteriori knowledge
 It can be clearly demonstrated that mathematical knowledge is of the analytic- a priori
type and scientific knowledge is of the synthetic- a posteriori type
Analytic proposition Synthetic proposition
(snow is snow) (snow is white)
Negative : self-contradictory Negative: False synthetic
proposition.(snow is not snow) proposition.(snow is not white)

3. Experienced knowledge is always tentative and cannot exist prior to experience or be concluded from
observation. It must be experienced to have value.
 Based on nature, Knowledge is of 6 types:
1. Apriori Knowledge :
Meaning “from the earlier”.
It implies that a person can derive knowledge from the world without needing to
experience it.
Deductive reasoning forms the basis for arriving at conclusions.
Idealism give prominence.
2. Aposteriori Knowledge :
Meaning “from the latter”.
Gain experience through senses and subject them to logical reasoning (inductive reasoning) and
reflection to derive understanding(conclusion)
Naturalist an pragmatists accept this.
3.Explicit Knowledge:
More formal and reliable
Knowledge that is recorded and communicated through media like libraries and
databases.
It is easily transferable.
4.Tacit knowledge:
Facial expressions, body movements and gestures , body language etc may communicate
information.
Knowledge thus communicated non-verbally is tacit knowledge.
It is the opposite of explicit knowledge.
It is almost impossible to be communicated.
5.Propositional Knowledge :
Known as “descriptive” or “declarative” knowledge.
Explicit knowledge is propositional knowledge.
Propositional knowledge is one which can be literally expressed in
propositions.
It is knowledge of something and not about how to do something.
Ex: you can learn to use a computer but not know how to program a
computer
6. Non-propositional knowledge :
It is also known as procedural knowledge.
Opposite to propositional knowledge.
Used or applied in specific problems and situations.
Gives the rules and guidelines for initiating legal action, conducting
functions and dealing with administrative problems.
 Philosophers classified the types knowledge in to the three major
types that are personal, procedural and propositional knowledge

Propositional
Personal Knowledge
Knowledge
Procedural Knowledge
1. Personal Knowledge
The first type of knowledge is personal knowledge, or knowledge by acquaintance.
Knowledge in this sense is to do with being familiar with something.
Personal knowledge does, possibly, involve possessing at least some propositional knowledge.
What is important is that personal knowledge involves more than knowledge of propositions.

2. Procedural Knowledge
The second kind of knowledge is procedural knowledge, or knowledge how to do something.
People, who claim to know how to juggle, or how to drive, are not simply claiming that they understand the
theory involved in those
activities.Rather, they are claiming that actually possess the skills involved, that they are able to do these things.
Procedural knowledge clearly differs from propositional knowledge.
It is possible to know all of the theory behind driving a car (i.e. to have all of the relevant propositional
knowledge) without actually knowing how to drive a car (i.e. without having the procedural knowledge).
Knowing how to drive involves possessing a skill, being able to do something, which is very different to merely
knowing a collection of facts.
3. Propositional Knowledge
The third kind of knowledge, the kind that philosophers concern about most, is propositional knowledge, or
knowledge of facts.
When we say things like “I know that the internal angles of a triangle add up to 180 degrees” or “I know that it
was you that ate my sandwich”, we are claiming to have propositional knowledge.
Although there are several different types of knowledge, the primary concern of epistemology is propositional
knowledge.
This is knowledge of facts; knowledge that such and such is the case.
The difference between the three types of knowledge is not as sharp as it might at first appear.
Personal knowledge does seem to involve knowledge of at least some propositions.
Simply having met someone is not enough to know them (in the personal knowledge sense); you also have to
know a few things about them (in the propositional knowledge sense).
Procedural knowledge also seems to involve some propositional knowledge.
If you know how to drive a car (in the procedural knowledge sense) then you presumably knows certain facts
about driving (e.g. which way the car will go if you turn the steering wheel to the left).
What is important is that propositional knowledge is not enough to give you either personal knowledge or
procedural knowledge.
Personal knowledge involves acquiring propositional knowledge in a certain way, and procedural knowledge
may entail propositional knowledge, but the same propositional knowledge certainly does not entail procedural
knowledge.
Theories of Knowledge
The The
presentative representative
theory theory

Coherence The pragmatic

theory theory

The Theories
The intuition
Revelation of theory
theory
Knowledge
 The Revalation Theory

 According to this theory, the final test of truth of assertions is

their consonance (agreement) with the revelations of authority
 Weight of authority has played its part in areas other than
religion.
 For ex : Aristotle’s utterances ,for instance,were depended
upon for centuries as the sine qua non ( essential condition) of
wisdom. It is said that even scholars of Galileo’s time refused to
look through the telescope because Aristotle had not indicated
this as permissible .
Coherence Theory
 This theory says that a statement is true if it is consistent with other statements
accepted as true.
 Statements, of course, must be "true" to the particulars to which they refer.
 But on the hypothesis that the entire universe expresses a single unified and rationally
consistent order, each statement accepted as true must be congruent with all other
statements
accepted as true.
 Thus, in a system of geometry, all propositions are congruent with all other statements
accepted as true in that geometry. But geometry does not usually assume that such
congruence is to be found everywhere outside geometry, nor even as between
different systems of geometry.
 Certain idealists in philosophy have held the view that the whole universe is a perfect
faqade of reason in which all particular truths are united into one congruent whole.
The Presentative theory
 According to this theory, reality as presented to the mind in perception is
known directly and without alteration. Errors of perception occur, but
further observation is able to detect and explain them.
 Realists, specifically the neo-realists, favour this view.
 The presentative view is typical in common-sense thinking; although
common sense, with admirable impartiality, may adopt all six of our
theories of knowledge as convenience requires.
 The presentative theory regards such traits as the colors, shapes, and odors
of objects, which appear to our senses as true objective characteristics of
the objects, except for the occurrence of detectable errors.
The Representative Theory
 This view, again favoured by certain realists, holds that our perceptions of objects are not
identical, with them.
 This differs from the presentative view sketched above which goes the length of saying that
when we perceive truly, our perception is identical with the object perceived.This implies
that the object perceived literally enters the mind, which perceives
it.
 But the representative realist tries to be more cautious on this point. What we
see when we look at a tree is only its image. The tree cannot be identical with
this image. The image is in one's mind, and the mind is somehow located in the
brain; if the tree is fifty feet high, there is not room enough in one's brain to
accommodate it.
 Although the representative realist does not identify the perception with the object, he
believes that the perception usually represents the object with accuracy.
 The image is usually a reliable replica of the object.
 Again,we consider that the tree continues to exist whether or not we are seeing it.
The Pragmatic Theory

 This view holds that statements are true if they work successfully in
practice.
 If an idea or principle is effective in organizing knowledge or in the
practical affairs of life, then it is true.
 The belief of the pragmatist is that the function of knowledge is to guide
thought and action successfully .
 It is the root of the important development in American education known as
the progressive movement.
 The Intuition Theory

 This view varies so much in its definition that it sometimes becomes identical with some of the
other theories sketched above.
 At one extreme, intuition refers to a mysterious and immediate inner source of knowledge
apart from both perpetual observation and reasoning.
 In this sense, intuitionism is encountered in some philosophies (e.g. neoplatonism and Bergsonism),
in religion, philosophic spiritualism , and in the twilight areas of mysticism in general.
 At the other extreme, the term intuition has been used to designate generally accredited and
immediate ways of knowing, such as in immediate sensation, or the immediate awareness we may
have of some self-evident or axiomatic truth.
 Thus Aristotle's principle in logic says that any object A cannot be at the same time be
not-A is said by some to rest on immediate intuition. It does not arise from proof
because all proof presupposes it.
 A related concept denoted by the term "insight“ occurs in the literature of modem Gestalt
psychology.
Constituents of knowledge :
Facts , Principles, Laws
,Concepts and Theories
 Facts

Theories Principles

Constituents
of
Knowledge

Concepts Laws
Facts

 Factis something that is known to have

happened or to exist, especially something for
which proof exists, or about which there is
information.
 Thickclouds bring rains; milk is white in colour;
and animals have four legs are facts
 Concepts
 Concepts are mental representations, abstract objects, or
abilities, which makeup the fundamental building blocks
of our thoughts and beliefs.
 The animal with a trunk is an elephant. This is the
concept of an elephant, which is different from other
animals.
 We have the concept of a good student, poor student,
weak student, bold student, mild student, and many
more types of students.
Principles

 Principles are fundamental truths or propositions that

serve as the foundation for a system of belief or
behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.
 Itcan also be explained as an idea or rule that explains
or controls how something works.
 Ex:the principles of our Constitution, principles of
democracy, Archimedes principle
 Laws
 Laws are the descriptions of an observed natural phenomenon that always
appears to be true, it is empirically tested and based on observation only.
 A law describes a situation which, to use a phrase coined,by Norman Feather, '
might
conceivably have been otherwise'.
 Of course, natural laws are different from societal laws.
 Societal laws define the conduct between human beings and are determined
through governing bodies.
 Natural laws are determined by the fundamental forces within nature. Natural
laws
arise from the process known as the scientific method.
 Laws makes assertions that a relationship exists between two or more
concepts;each of the concepts is tied (either directly or indirectly via chain of
inference) to observable phenomena.
 Ex : Newton's Laws of Motion, Ohm's Law and Boyle's Law
Characteristic of Laws:
Laws of nature are descriptive. They describe the way nature works. For example,
Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe how planets actually do move. Laws
describe uniformities in nature.
Laws of nature are a smaller class of propositions than empirical statements in general.
(Any statement whose truth can be tested by observation of the world is an empirical
proposition). Laws of nature are the very basis of the empirical sciences.
Laws must be a true, universal, empirical proposition . A law must be an empirical truth of
the form "All A is B" where B must be connected with A not as a matter of necessity, not a
priori but as a matter of contingent fact. The law 'Metals expand when heated' is a taxonomy
of law statement involving a relationship between classes of objects ('metals', and 'things
which expand when heated’).
Even true propositions about some members of a class are not considered as laws of
nature. They are called statistical laws.
 These universal propositions are hypothetical in form.
They are usually interpreted as propositions of the "if.. .then...."form
“ All iron rust when exposed to oxygen” is actually “ if there is iron, it will rust when
exposed to oxygen”.
 A law of nature is open-ended. It has an infinite range both in time and space. It is
an open class with no structures of time and space. The claim of the laws of nature
extends into the future and this enables them to be made the prediction.
 A law of nature should have some indirect evidence for it. Whether or not something
is called a law, then, depends to a large extent on how deeply embedded it is in a wider
system of laws.
 Universal propositions whose degree of generality is greater are more likely to pass
as laws.
As explained earlier, the assertions that have more generality can be considered as laws.
when compared to singular statement. For example,
"Silver is a good thermal conductor".
"All metals are good thermal conductors" (more general).
"Tungsten melts at 3370°C.
"All rake-earth metals have higher melting points than the halogens" (more general).
Theory
 Theories are statements that explain a particular segment of phenomena by specifying
certain relationships among variables.
 A theory is general in its approach ,it is not specific in nature like facts and principles. It is of a higher order of
abstraction than a fact or principle.
 Theories date, explain and predict wider varieties of experimental and observational findings in the simplest and
efficient way.
 Scientific theories serve as means and ends in the development of science.
As means they provide a framework , which guides scientists in making observation and discovery. They
summarize knowledge and put knowledge in an order within a given field.
As ends, theories provide scientists explanations for observed events and relationships for specific phenomena with
objectivity.
 They do so by showing the relationship between variables and explaining how they are related.
 On the basis of understanding of such relationships, scientists make deductions and predict about what will happen
in certain situations under specific conditions.
 In a scientific theory, predictions are generated and empirically tested.
 The most powerful question that we can ask of a theory is not 'Is it true', but 'Is it capableof being proved false?’.
 According to Karl Popper , it is the ability of a theory to be refuted that is, the most important criterion for judging
whether the theory is scientifically sound.
Difference between a law and theory

   terms Law and Theory are sometimes interchangeably used in science.
The
 Newton’s relationship, for example, is frequently referred to as his law of gravitation , occasionally as, his
Theory of Gravitation.
Nevertheless, it can be argued that in most cases, it is possible to distinguish between, laws and theories because
they have rather different syntactical structures.
 In case of laws, overt observational or laboratory procedures are available to give operative meaning to the terms
in the relationship, whereas in case of theories, no such direct procedures are possible.
 For example ,it is possible to operationally define the potential difference for Ohm’s law (in terms of number of
standard batteries in series and mass of metal deposited at an electrode).
 While in the kinetic theory of gases there are direct operational procedures for testing the relationship of pressure
with the number of molecules per unit volume, molecular mass and the average of the square of the molecular
velocity. .
 In general , we construct or devise theories, but we discover laws of nature.
 A scientific theory always contains some term that does not denote anything that we can directly observe. If we
can observe something only through a telescope or microscope, we are still said to observe it. But if there are no
conditions under which we can observe it, it is a theoretical entity; and when the theory-word is a part of a
statement, that statement is said to be a theory.
 For example, protons and electrons can be observed, though we do observe many things that are presumed to be
effects of them. So the statements about protons and electrons are theory but not law.
 Difference between a fact and a theory
 A fact is something we already know. It reports a single event (Eg- there is a sun in
the sky right now).
 A theory states things that are not yet observed. (Eg. protons and electrons). It reports an infinite
number of events resulting in an universal statement.(Eg. The Sun rises every 24 hours).
 A scientist makes observations and records them in mathematical language ,while a theoretician tries to
formulate a general mathematical proposition by incorporating the facts observed and develops his
theory by seeing relationships between variables in operation by deriving certain predictions of facts in
mathematical propositions.
 Theories often offer a crude and general explanation of a phenomenon. They are refined and modified
as knowledge in the presence of facts.
 The discovery of facts is essential in order to determine whether a theory can be confirmed or rejected
or reformulated.
 A scientist holds the theories tentatively, always prepared to abandon them if the facts do not bear out
the predictions and looks for a new or improved theory.
 A theory provides means for its own interpretation and verification. In other words, it provides
deductions , which can be tested empirically.
It comprises a model which is a mental picture, analogy or mathematical relationship
that permits the theoretical concepts to be visualized in more or less familiar terms .
Knowledge process :
Sensation , perception ,
reason and conception
 The process of knowing is explicate and explains to a large extent the
meaning and also the nature of knowledge.
 The valid ways of knowing are sensation, perception , conception ,
reason, emotion, and language.
 All have a particular purpose and place .
 A child from infancy to early childhood relies heavily on the sense
perception for knowledge acquisition. It is only after stepping into late
childhood that the other three ways of knowing starts taking place.
Language and emotions are followed by reason, and by adulthood, it is
combination of all the four that converge in the process of
knowledge acquisition.
Sensation
 The physical process during which our sensory organs—those involved with hearing and
taste, for example—respond to external stimuli is called sensation.
 Sensation happens when you eat noodles or feel the wind on your face or hear a car horn
honking in the distance.
 During sensation, our sense organs are engaging in transduction, the conversion of one form
of energy into another. Physical energy such as light or a sound wave is converted into a form
of energy the brain can understand: electrical stimulation. After our brain receives the
electrical signals, we make sense of all this stimulation and begin to appreciate the complex
world around us.
 Knowledge starts with the experience of the facts or matters through the sense organs,
individually and collectively at the individual level or while participating in any social
activity.
 The ultimate source of all human knowledge is the evidence of reality provided by the senses.
 All the five senses such as touch, taste, sight, smell, and hearing, contribute towards our
quest for knowledge acquisition. They are sometimes referred to as the gateways of
knowledge. Sensations are simple sensory experiences helping in awareness of qualities.
 Perception
 This psychological process—making sense of the stimuli—is called perception. It is during this process
that you are able to identify a gas leak in your home or a song that reminds you of a specific afternoon
spent with friends.
 Perception is an active, selective and interpretative process of recording or becoming conscious of the
external world through sense experience. These sensory experiences are primarily gained with our five
senses: touch, taste, smell, hearing and sight.
 For instance, light reflects off a surface, stimulating our eyes forms a mental construction called as the
percept.
 This construction is dependent on the brain’s internal structures and strategies.
 In other words, we use what we already believe to be true about the world to categorize what we perceive.
Thus, it is the most basic and immediate ‘way of knowing’, sometimes it might
not be a very reliable source.
 While perceptions are complex constructions of simple elements joined through association to form a
meaningful experience.
 Sense perception is a subjective activity hence it varies from individual to individual, depending upon
one’s innate abilities.
 Our intellect defines the limits of our sense perception. Our physical conditions, motivational dispositions
and mental state direct our sense perceptions.
 Reason
 The action of thinking about something in a logical, sensible way to form
a conclusion or judgement is called reasoning.
 Developing rational and critical thinking abilities is pivotal to acquiring
reliable knowledge. It involves both conscious and unconscious
reasoning.
 Sometimes what has happened in the past teaches us to reason with
reference to the future.
Developing association between past, present, and future occurrences is
part of the reasoning
process creating patterns in the process of learning.
 Taking other knowledge as data, by logical operations knowledge can be
inferred. For example the theoretical construct, the electron, is derived by
reasoning and logical inferences from observations and experiment .
 There are 3 types of reasoning : Deductive , Inductive and Fallacious
 Deductive reasoning allows us to go from starting ideas (premises) to
reach valid conclusions. Sometimes it can be thought of as starting from
general statement that is accepted as true to specific statement that is
(therefore) true.
 Inductive reasoning is a type of logical thinking that involves forming
generalizations based on specific incidents you've experienced,
observations you've made, or facts you know to be true or false.
 Fallacious reasoning : A fallacy is the use of invalid or otherwise
faulty reasoning, or "wrong moves" in the construction of an argument.
A fallacious argument may be deceptive by appearing to be better than
it really is.
Conception
 The world is full of an endless amount of sensory experiences. Conception involves
to   make meaning out of all this incoming information by reducing our experience
of the world down to the fundamentals.
 The term is usually applied to theoretical, abstract aspects of thinking (cognition)
originating from sensory experience and information acquired during study and work
that is what is perceived from all the experience.
 Conception is viewed as a mental structure that includes also the person’s beliefs ,
perceptions.
 A conception is a dynamic entity that can undergo changes based on practice and/or
exposure to other sources of knowledge. Such changes could be enhanced by a
process of reflection, which helps construct and reconstruct knowledge.
 In other words, sensation involves the process of sensing our environment
through touch, taste, sight, sound, and smell. This information is sent to our brains
in raw form where perception comes into play. Perception is the way we interpret
these sensations and therefore make sense of everything around us. Conception
organizes this information into categories for better understanding and
comprehension.