Lab 2: Siliciclastic Rocks

Sedimentary Rock ID
Sedimentary rocks are mainly composed of
The sedimentary rock record is
silicate particles from weathered rocks and
extremely important to
pyroclastic volcanism.
understanding Earth’s history:
Least abundant rock type overall, most common
rock we see at Earth’s surface. Why? Structures and textures indicate
ancient sediment transport and
Crustal rocks are constantly being eroded by depositional conditions.
surficial processes.
Depositional Environments

Transitional

Barton
 Sedimentary Textures: Grain size
Fundamental descriptive property of
Highest
siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. WHY?

Grain Size Indicates:

● Weathering and erosion processes
High
● The nature of transport processes
● Provenance (sometimes)

Med.

Low

Lowest
Mixed Sediments
This chart is used to
describe the size of
observed grains and
combinations you may
see.

Refer back to grain size

chart for exact grain
measurements.

REFERS TO SIZE not

Mineralogy. We’ll talk
about that next...
Sedimentary Textures: Sorting

Well-sorted: current
maintained constant
speed. Beach or
wind deposits

Poorly-sorted:
current speed is
variable. Stream
deposits
Sedimentary Textures: Particle Shape

Form/Sphericity: proportions of the grain;

controlled by original shape of the grain, but
impacted by abrasion and breakage during
transport. A range covering rectangular to
spherical

Roundedness: How smooth or rough the edges

of a grain are. Comp (mineral hardness/stability),
g.s, transport processes, distance.

Surface Texture: small-scale markings on the

grain: polished, frosted, pitted, scratched. Can be
caused by mechanical action, tectonic polishing,
and chemical corrosion.
All 3 are independent, but form and roundedness tend
to correlate and can effect texture.
 Sedimentary Textures: Fabric

Grain Orientation effects platy

grains and show a preferential
orientation relative to current flow
● Flow Velocity & hydraulic
conditions)

Imbrication the overlapping

arrangement of particles like
shingles on a roof.
● Most stable configuration
Packing the spacing or density
patterns of grains in a
sedimentary rock.
● A function of size, shape, and
sediment compaction
Grain-supported continuous, grain-to-
grain contact
● Sandstones, conglomerates
A. Particles parallel to current.
deposited by fluid-flow
B. Perpendicular to current flow.
C. Imbricated particles.
Matrix-supported grains “float” in sand D. Random orientation
or mud characteristic of deposition in
● Glacial deposits, mud-flow, and quiet water.
debris-flow
Rock Types: Sandstone

Quartz Arenite Feldspathic Arenite (Arkose) Lithic Wacke

 Diagram works similar to other ternary
Classification of Sandstones diagrams using quartz, feldspar, and
lithics end members and is concerned
with the % matrix.

Argillaceous: word to describe clay-

containing.
Matrix: grains in sandstones that are
< 0.03mm. They fill interstitial spaces
between framework (larger grains).

HOW TO READ IT:

>10
Front of the diagram: < 5% clay
% fe
ldsp
ar
= Arenites
>10
% rock
frag Moving to back: >5% , ≤ 50% clay
= Wackes
Rock Types: Conglomerates
Characteristic of alternating depositional environments of high
and low energy

Conglomerate (clast-supported)
Diamictite (matrix-supported)
Conglomerate (rounded) Breccia (angular)
 Conglomerate Classification
This chart uses clast lithology and
fabric support to ID conglomerates.
Rocks with mixed lithology are
referred to as ‘polymicts’.
Conglomerate: clast supported
fabric (the clasts are touching)
Diamictite: matrix-supported fabric
(the clasts are not touching; matrix-
filled interstices)

How to read: similar to other ternary

diagrams - the closer to the edge
means a higher % constituent.

Pg. 116 in the textbook. See table 4 as well (Quartzose vs. Petromict)
Rock Types: Mudstones and Shale

Laminated Siltstone Mudshale Clayshale

Bedded Siltstone Mudstone Claystone

Shale Classification This diagram picks up where the
sandstone chart left off: >50%
argillaceous matrix. It also considers
texture and bedding/lamination to arrive
at a name.

Gritty: particles can be felt; sandy feeling

Loamy: smooth with some grit
Slick: smooth
Indurated: lithified
Nonindurated: not lithified (yet)

Tip: measure bed/laminae thickness for

appropriate samples
Eyeballing
Modal
Percentages
Next Week:

This lab continued. We can go over any issues you may have with your
descriptions.

Keep reading your textbook!

Lab 2 reports will be due Feb 16 by 10:59am

Shales, Sandstones, and Conglomerates Cont.

Let’s talk a little more about the

technical differences between
these 3 categories and why we
classify them the way we do.
Sandstones
Super important to oil and gas:
high porosity
● Result of form, sorting, and
grain packing
Grains can be seen without a
microscope, making them easy to
study.
Classification
● Made up of grains within a certain size range
(SAND)
● Categorized by how much clay matrix is
present
○ <10% : Arenites
○ >10-50% : Wackes
● Mostly quartz, but can contain significant
amounts (greater than 10%) of feldspar or
rock fragments (lithics)
Significance
● >⅔ quartz (qtz)
● More qtz indicates textural maturity
and a higher degree of sorting
● Study of sandstone grains allows us to
determine provenance
 Provenance (origin of the grains)
Why so much quartz? What about feldspar?

1. Quartz is one of the most Most common minerals in igneous and metamorphic
abundant minerals in rocks, but less stable at surface conditions
crystalline rocks like
● Plagioclase - usually showing albite twinning.
granitoids, schists, and
Such plagioclase can be derived from both
gneisses.
igneous and metamorphic sources. If the
plagioclase also shows zoning, then it is likely
2. Quartz is mechanically durable
from a volcanic source.
due to its high hardness and
lack of cleavage.
● Alkali Feldspar - Orthoclase and microcline are
derived from both igneous and metamorphic
3. Quartz is chemically stable
sources. Sanidine is derived from volcanic
under conditions present at
sources. Microperthite, the intergrowth of K-rich
the Earth's surface. It has a
and Na-rich alkali feldspars, is likely derived from
very low solubility in water.
a plutonic igneous source.
Nelson (2013) Images: Adam Jeffery ; Alex Strekeisen
And lithics (best clue to provenance)?

Any type of rock fragment can be found in a sandstone, but some kinds are more common due to the following factors:

1. Areal extent in the source drainage basin: more exposed rock face means there will be a greater amount of sediment
produced in that basin.

2. Location and relief of the drainage basin. The proximity of the basin to the sediment source correlates to how much of
the sediment persists in the basin. If the source area has high topographic relief, rates of erosion will be higher, and lithic
fragments derived from the source will be more likely to occur in the sediment.

3. Stability of the rock fragment in the sedimentary environment. Fragments of mudrocks are relatively rare due to their
mechanical weakness during transport. Similarly fragments of gabbros are rare in sandstones because the minerals they
contain are chemically unstable in the sedimentary environment. Because sandstones are usually cemented together with
calcite or hematite, sandstone fragments break down easily during transport. The minerals that occur in granites, however,
are more stable under conditions present near the Earth's surface, and thus granitic fragments are more common in
sandstones. Volcanic rock fragments, with the exception of crystalline rhyolites, are generally unstable, but may occur if
factors 1, 2 and 4 are favorable.

4. Size of the crystals in the fragments. In order to be present in a sandstone as a lithic fragment, the grain size of the
minerals in the lithic fragment must be smaller than the grain size of the sediment. Thus, granitic fragments will be
expected to be rare, except in coarse sands, and volcanic and fine-grained metamorphic fragments will be expected to be
more common.
Climate

Humid vs Arid Environments

Remember back to what you know about

how humidity affects rates of chemical
reactions

We expect more intense weathering in

humid environments
● higher qtz %

Mechanically controlled in arid environments

● higher lithics and feldspar %
 NOT THE SAME AS
Diagenesis METAMORPHISM
Once sand has been deposited and buried by more
sediment, it begins to undergo diagenetic processes
which can turn the unconsolidated material into a
sedimentary rock. There are seven main diagenetic
processes:

1. Compaction
2. Recrystallization
3. Solution
4. Cementation
5. Authigenesis
6. Replacement
7. Bioturbation
Soltan (2017).
 Cement vs Matrix
Most common types of cement:

● Quartz - Most common in qtz arenites. High

energy current environments (beaches, dunes,
some fluvial sandbars)

● Calcite- Most common type in sandstones,

more soluble so forms patchily in pores. Very
common in surface and groundwater;
dissolved from carbonate minerals or
bicarbonate (HCO3-)

● Clays- clay cement has a distinct smell when

you wet a hand sample.
Matrix: fine-grained material deposited at the same
● Hematite- Redox during weathering of
igneous rocks causes the Fe2+ to oxidize to time as the larger particles
Fe3+. Precipitation cements grains together.
Cement: a chemical precipitate between grains
Not easily dissolved unless conditions are
highly reducing. formed from pore water long after deposition
Mudstones Classification

Based mainly on field observations and hand

Largest group of sedimentary rocks : specimens.

>65% of the entire group ● Organized by varying abundances of

silt- and clay-sized particles which
Important source rocks for oil and gas;
affects the surface texture
sometimes are important ore rocks ○ Gritty, loamy, slick/fat
● Considers structure: bedded or
Difficult to study without high powered
laminated
microscopes.
● Indurated (hardened) or non-indurated

Significance
● Excellent indicators of paleoenvironment
● Texturally mature, low energy currents
● Color of the mudrock is controlled by the
fraction of organic matter and Fe2+/Fe3+
content
 Red-Brown-Yellow-Green
Color
● Color is indicative of the oxidation state of Fe
Grey-Black in the rock per redox conditions:
● Indicates more than 1% organic Oxidizing/Fe3+
carbon or carbon compound.
● Reducing conditions caused by low ● Red: hematite
oxygen in the environment during ● Brown: goethite
deposition: stagnant water ● Yellow: limonite

Restricted seas, swamps, lakes, Reducing/Fe2+

and lagoons ● Green: smectites, chlorite, etc.
Mineralogy of Mudrocks
Clays
Kaolinite - formed in warm, moist
climates; K, Na, Ca ions
Smectites- temperate climates;
weathered Fe/Mg ig and met rocks
Illites- temperate climates;
feldspars
Quartz
Silt-sized fraction as single
crystals: detrital,
transformation of smectite to
illite, or recrystallized
diatoms and radiolaria
Feldspar and Carbonates
Low abundance,
unstable/soluble
Calcite from detrital forams
or other microorganisms
Organics
Oxygen depleted
environments (reducing)
preserve organics. The
source for hydrocarbon
production.
Sulfides
Found in black shales
formed under reducing
conditions
Bentonites
Indicate pyroclastic fall
deposits - excellent marker
beds for paleoenvironment
reconstruction. Contain
sanidine used for K-Ar dating.