ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

WITH PATHOLOGY
 PREMID
1. Introduction Human • At the end of the unit the
learner is able to:
Body
1. list the levels of structural
• Overview of organ
hierarchy from smallest to
system largest
• Directional and regional 2. list the 11 organ system
terms 3. place major organs in the
• Cavities and planes proper organ system
• Homeostasis and 4. explain what is meant by
negative and positive anatomic position
feedback systems 5. determine from an illustration
the different anatomical terms,
– Life processes
directions, planes and cavities
2.Chemical
6. discuss the chemical
Composition
•
composition of the cell 
Organic
• Inorganic 7. describe the
• Electrolytes importance of cells in
• Water the makeup of the body
3. Cell Structure  8. describe the terms
Membrane
hypotonic, hypertonic,
transport
4. Mitosis and Meiosis Isotonic concentration
5. Tissues 9. define the terms
Microscopic identification of diffusion, osmosis and
• tissue types filtration
Function and locations of
• epithelial, connective,
10. name the four
• muscle phases of cell division 
• and nerve tissues
• Anatomy is the study of the structure of the
human body
• Physiology is a branch of biology relating to the
function of organs and organ systems, and how
they work within the body to respond to
challenges.
• Pathology  is a branch of medical science that
involves the study and diagnosis of disease
through the examination of surgically removed
organs, tissues (biopsy samples), bodily fluids,
and in some cases the whole body (autopsy).
Levels of Structural Organization in the human body
• The human body has 6 main levels of structural
organization.
1. Chemical level– is the simplest level within the
structural hierarchy. The chemical level includes the
tiniest building blocks of matter, atoms, which
combine to form molecules, like water. In turn,
molecules combine to form organelles, the internal
organs of a cell.
2. Cellular level– the cellular level is made up of the smallest
unit of living matter, the cell. Individual cells may have some
common functions but vary widely in size and shape. Each
type of cells carries out a set of unique tasks within the
human body.
3. Tissue level– Tissues are groups of similar cells that have a
common function. A tissue must contain two different types
of cells. The four basic tissue types in humans
include epithelium, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
Each tissue has a characteristic role within the human body .
4. Organ level– an organ is a structure composed of at least
two different tissue types that perform a specific function
within the body. Examples include the brain, stomach, and
liver. Complex functions begin to emerge at this level.
5. Organ system level– One or more organs work in
unison to accomplish a common purpose. For
instance, the heart and blood vessels work together
and circulate blood throughout the body to provide
oxygen and nutrients to cells. Besides the
cardiovascular system, the other organ systems of
the body are the integumentary, skeletal, nervous,
muscular, endocrine, respiratory, lymphatic,
digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
6. Organismal level– The organismal level is the
highest level of organization. It is the sum total of all
structural levels working together. In short, it is the
human being (or organism) as a whole.
Standard anatomical position for humans
Term Meaning Examples of Usage
The aorta is ventral to the vertebral
Ventral Toward the front* or belly
column.

Dorsal Toward the back or spine The vertebral column is dorsal to the aorta.

Anterior Toward the ventral side* The sternum is anterior to the heart.

Posterior Toward the dorsal side* The esophagus is posterior to the trachea.

The cephalic end of the embryonic neural

Cephalic Toward the head or superior end
tube develops into the brain.

Rostral Toward the forehead or nose The forebrain is rostral to the brainstem.

Caudal Toward the tail or inferior end The spinal cord is caudal to the brain.

Superior Above The heart is superior to the diaphragm.

Inferior Below The liver is inferior to the diaphragm.

Medial Toward the median plane The heart is medial to the lungs.

Lateral Away from the median plane The eyes are lateral to the nose.

Proximal Closer to the point of attachment or origin The elbow is proximal to the wrist.

Farther from the point of attachment or The fingernails are at the distal ends of the
Distal
origin fingers.

Superficial Closer to the body surface The skin is superficial to the muscles.

Deep Farther from the body surface The bones are deep to the muscles.
 Homeostasis
• describes the mechanism by which the constancy of
the internal environment is maintained and ensured
by self-regulating physiological processes
Ex. Transport of ECF, Maintenance of pH of ECF (acid–
base balance), Regulation of temperature, Maintenance
of water and electrolyte balance, Supply of nutrients,
oxygen, enzymes and hormones, Elimination of
metabolic and other waste products, and Reproduction.
• homeostasis is mostly maintained by physiologic
processes
• If the response reverses the stimulus it is called negative
feedback mechanisms
• If the response enhances or intensifies the stimulus a
system is operating in a positive feedback
Negative feedback
Positive feed back
 Chemical composition
• Cells are composed of water, inorganic ions, and
carbon-containing (organic) molecules. Water is the
most abundant molecule in cells, accounting for 70%
or more of total cell mass.
•  The inorganic ions of the cell, including sodium (Na+),
potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+),
phosphate (HPO42-), chloride (Cl-), and bicarbonate
(HCO3-), constitute 1% or less of the cell mass. 
• The organic molecules belong to one of four classes
of molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids. 
The carbohydrates include simple sugars as well as
polysaccharides. These simple sugars, such as glucose, fructose
and galactose are the major nutrients of cells.
Representative sugars containing three, five, and six carbons
(triose, pentose, and hexose sugars)
Monosaccharides can be joined together by dehydration
reactions, in which H2O is removed and the sugars are linked by a 
glycosidic bond . If only a few sugars are joined together, the
resulting polymer is called an oligosaccharide, such as sucrose
(cane sugar) and lactose (milk sugar). If a large number (hundreds
or thousands) of sugars are involved, the resulting polymers are
macromolecules called polysaccharides.
Two common polysaccharides —glycogen and starch—are the
storage forms of carbohydrates in animal and plant cells
The simplest lipids are fatty acids, which consist of long
hydrocarbon chains, most frequently containing 16 or 18
carbon atoms, with a carboxyl group (COO-) at one end. It can
only dissolve in nonpolar solvents, such as alcohol and
acetone but not in polar solvents like water. 
Fatty acids stored in the form of triacylglycerols, or fats, which
consist of three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule.
Function for energy, structure,regulation and insulation
Phospholipids, the principal components of cell membranes,
consist of two fatty acids joined to a polar head group 
Glycolipids consist of two hydrocarbon chains linked to polar
head groups that contain carbohydrates . Cholesterol, in
contrast, consists of four hydrocarbon rings rather than linear
hydrocarbon chains
Nucleic acids— building blocks of nucleotides
DNA and RNA—are the principal informational molecules of the cell
•  Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has a unique role as the genetic
material, which in eukaryotic cells is located in the nucleus.
•  Ribonucleic acid (RNA) participate in a number of cellular
activities. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries information from DNA
to the ribosomes, where it serves as a template for protein
synthesis. Two other types of RNA (ribosomal RNA and 
transfer RNA) are involved in protein synthesis.
• DNA contains two purines (adenine and guanine) and two
pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine). Adenine, guanine, and 
cytosine are also present in RNA, but RNA contains uracil in place
of thymine. 
• Proteins are polymers of 20 different amino acids. Each amino acid
 consists of a carbon atom (called the α carbon) bonded to a carboxyl
group (COO-), an amino group (NH3+), a hydrogen atom, and a
distinctive side chain 
•  proteins include serving as structural components of cells and tissues
collagen fibers, actin and myosin are contracting units of the muscle
• transport and storage of small molecules (e.g., the transport of
oxygen by hemoglobin),
• transmitting information between cells (e.g.protein hormones),
• and providing a defense against infection (e.g., antibodies).
• The most fundamental property of proteins, however, is their ability
to act as enzymes to catalyze nearly all the chemical reactions in
biological systems. Thus, proteins direct virtually all activities of the
cell. The central importance of proteins in biological chemistry is
indicated by their name, which is derived from the Greek
word proteios, meaning “of the first rank.”
A ‘typical’ Eukaryote cell major parts include:

1. Nucleus
- chromosomes /chromatin - dispersed thin strands of DNA, histones
- Nucleolus – composed of rRNA and proteins
2. Cytoplasm
- Cell membrane - Outer limit of the cell, Phospholipid bilayer, Selectively
permeable • Controls what moves in and out of the cell  
-Flagellum - Hair-like projections from cell surface that aid in cell movement 
- Ribosomes- Composed of rRNA Serve in protein synthesis
- Mitochondrion- membranous sacs with inner partitions • Generate energy
- Rough Endoplasmic reticulum - Studded with ribosomes on cytoplasmic
side – Protein anabolism • Synthesizes proteins • Modifies proteins –
Adds sugar to protein – Results in glycoproteins
- Centrioles- Used to produce cilia and flagella • Distributes chromosomes
during cell division 
- Lysosomes- Enzyme-containing sacs • Digest worn out cell parts /unwanted
substances 
- Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum -membrane- No ribosomes – Synthesis of
lipids
 Movement through Plasma membrane

Passive transport is the movement of molecules across the cell

membrane and does not require energy. It is dependent on the
permeability of the cell membrane. There are three main kinds of
passive transport - Diffusion, Osmosis and Facilitated Diffusion.
1.Diffusion - The movement of molecules from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration.
2.  Facilitated diffusion -This process does not require ATP but
does require cell membrane proteins which are called carrier
proteins to carry the molecules across the cell membrane from an
area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
3. Osmosis - The movement of water across a semi permeable
membrane. Osmosis is the movement of water through a
semipermeable membrane to a higher concentration of solutes.
 How do the concentration of Solutions Affect the Water
Movement of a Cell?
• Hypertonic Solution - contain a high concentration of solute in
relation to the solution within the cell cytoplasm. When a cell
is placed in a hypertonic solution, the water diffuses out of the
cell, causing the cell to shrivel or shrink up.
• Hypotonic Solution - contain a solution with a lower salt
concentration than in normal cell cytoplasm. When a cell is
placed in a hypotonic solution, the water diffuses into the cell,
causing the cell to swell and possibly explode (crenated cell)
• Isotonic Solution - has the same salt concentration as the
normal cells of the body and the blood. When a cell is placed
in an isotonic solution, the water diffuses into and out of the
cell at the same rate. The fluid that surrounds the body cells is
isotonic.
 Tissues
Type of tissue Epithelial Connective Muscular Nervous
Function Covers and lines Binds and Enables Enables
body surface supports body movement of responses to
parts the body stimuli and
coordinates
body functions
Classification of Squamous Loose (areolar) Skeletal Neurons
cell type Cuboidal Dense (tendon) Visceral neuraglia
Columnar Cartilage cardiac
Transitional Bone
Blood Lymph