FIELD GEOPHYSICS

METHODS
CODE: HXGP 220

PRESENTED BY:
TINODASHE ARTHUR NYATHI R198185G
&
LEROY BADZA R198536V
 a) Describe fully the process of seismic refraction data collection procedure
for a small-scale refraction survey of a construction site to locate the water
table or rockhead (both of which surfaces are generally good refractors).

 Seismic refraction surveys image the structure of the subsurface through the
measurement of P-waves first arrivals from refracted elastic waves.
 A signal, similar to a sound pulse,is transmitted into the Earth.
 The signal returns to the surface by refraction at subsurface interfaces, and is
recorded at distances much greater than of investigation.
 Seismic refraction surveys use the process of critical refraction to infer interfaces
depths and layer velocities. Critical refraction requires an increase in velocity with
depth
 If not then, there is no critical refraction, creating what is known as Hidden layer
problem.
 This signal recorded at the surface can be used to infer subsurface properties,
such as:
1. Rock competence for engineering applications
2. Depth to Bed rock
3. Groundwater exploration
4. Correction of lateral, near-surface, variations in seismic reflection surveys
5. Crustal structure and tectonics

NB
Seismic velocities vary with mineral content, lithologies, porosity, pore fluid
saturation, pore pressure and to extent temperature
 Data collection procedures

 When conducting a seismic refraction survey a source of energy must be carefully

chosen bearing in mind the possible signal attenuation that can occur, often a
function of the geology. One should keep in mind whether the survey is conducted
on land or water.
 When choosing a source one should consider the following:
1. Sufficient energy to generate a measurable signal at receiver
2. Short duration pulse, i.e. containing enough high frequencies, to resolve the
desired subsurface layering
3. Repeatable source with at know, consistent waveform
4. Minimal mechanical noise
5. Ease of operation
 There are many different seismic refraction sources, but the most important are:
Land
 Sledge hammer, accelerated weight drop,
 shotgun, dynamite, Vibriosis

At sea
 Airgun

These are used to inject seismic energy into the earth such as at construction site to
locate the water table or rockhead, were land seismic energy sources are utilised
  When the seismic waves are injected into the ground, and the seismic velocity increases at an
interface () and the angle of incidence is increased from zero, the transmitted P wave will
eventually emerge at 90
 The refracted waves travel along the upper boundary of the lower medium.
 The interaction of the injected seismic waves with the interface produces an upgoing wavefront,
known as a headwave, according to Huygen’s principle.
 The direct signal from shot travel along top of first layer.
 The ray associated with this head wave emerges from the interface at critical angle. This
phenomenon forms the basis of the refraction surveying method.
 NB
 Critical refraction is also recorded at distance beyond which angle of incident becomes critical.
 At a greater distance (L) far away from the source, which is greater than the
depth being surveyed, the Geophones are laid out in a line to record arrivals from
a shot.
 The laying out of a seismic refraction spread is to obtain a time-distance graph
with an adequate number of points to describe all refractors of interest.
 This realization of this objective depends upon careful selection of geophone
spacing and total line length to suit a particular set of geologic conditions.
NB
Geologic conditions change in unexpected ways so that a constant geophone
spacing and spread length may not be desirable. However a constant geophone may
be useful in bedrock inferring.
 The recording at each geophone is a waveform called a seismogram.
 Land sensor Geophone
 Very shallow seismic refraction is extensively used in engineering studies.
Sometimes the energy source for shallow-penetration engineering studies
involves simply hitting the ground with a sledgehammer.
 The ease with which a rock can be ripped by a bulldozer relates to the rock’s
seismic velocity.S-waves velocity measurements are of special interest to
engineers because building stability depends on the shear strength of the
foundation rock or soil.
b) With the use of diagrams describe these three types of profile
geometry used in refraction surveying:

i. Conventional reversed profile with end shots.

  When a refractor dips, the slope of the travel time curve does not represent the “true” layer
velocity:
 Shooting updip, i.e. geophones are on updip side of shot, apparent refractor velocity is higher
 Shooting downdip apparent velocity is lower
 Therefore to determine both the layer velocity and the interface dip, forward and reverse
refraction profiles must be acquired or collected from the field.
 After the collection of the profiles, the data is plotted for both profiles on a single t-x plot
 The plots are examined for the differences in the slope of the line for each layer.
 If slopes are different on forward and reverse profiles, a dipping layer is present and the
equations for dipping layer should be used to determine velocity
 If slopes are identical a dipping layer is not present and velocity=
 These velocities can be used to determine layer thickness, and this coupled with pre-existing
knowledge, can be used to determine the geology of the subsurface.
ii. Split-profile with central shot.
 The split-profile method involves recording outwards in both directions from a
central shot point.
 Although the interpretation method differs in detail from that for a conventional
reversed profile, it is based on the same general travel-time equation
iii. Single-ended profile with repeated shots.
 The single-ended profile method was developed to derive interpretations of low-
velocity surface layers represented by refracted arrivals in single ended reflection
spread data, for use in the calculation of static correction.
 To obtain a value of refractor dip, estimates of apparent velocity are required in
both the forward and reverse directions.
 The repeated forward shooting of the single ended profile method enables an
apparent velocity in the forward direction to be computed from the gradient of
the travel-time curve
 Question 2
Geophysical surveys can be very dangerous if conducted without safety issues in survey designs and other
considerations. In point form, outline the dangers associated with geophysical surveys for each survey
method and suggest remedies for each danger.
 

 1)Electric shock e.g. in IP surveys were large amounts of electricity are pumped in the ground through
electrodes. Use properly insulated cables, use insulating gloves, and good communicating system, use of
barricades around current carrying electrodes.
 2)Fire- as a result of use of electrical equipment, especially naked cables or loose electrical connections,
short circuit can spark a fire leading destruction of both property and environment. Use fire extinguishers
such as foam extinguishers colored (cream),and insulated cables and proper connections
 3)Backaches-Most geophysical equipment is heavy and improper handling or carrying can lead to long
lasting medical conditions like back pains etc.
 Use proper manual lifting procedures, such as lifting with your legs and not your hands. Using good house
keeping procedures, to reduce ignition hazards, Ensure safe emergency evacuation of employees, To allow
quick emergency response.
 4)Geophysical surveys are conducted in the field which increases the risk of
snake bites. Therefore snake handling procedures should be well utilized such
circumstances and snake guards.
 5)Some injuries, such as scratches from tree branches of poisonous plants, small
poisonous insect and spiders and be become dangerous in the poisonous carrying
along a first aid box can be very useful. Wearing protective clothing and
equipment
 6)Keeping of flammable liquids such as Petrol and oil which is useful especially
in conducting IP surveys. Since fuel is a combustible liquid, if put near fire or
over heating/current cable cables it may explode, therefor it should be kept far
away from fire/overheating cables/current cables. Fuel tanks and other storage
containers should be at least 50m away from camp and properly posted with “No
smoking ” signs.
 7) Weakening of structures-For example seismic methods especially when using
vibriosis, which constantly vibrate the ground may lead to weakening of
structures such as buildings leading to their collapse. Use such procedures away
from such areas with structures, such as buildings.