BASIC RESERVOIR

ENGINEERING

Reservoir & Production Engineering Area

Geology & Geophysics Area

Bogotá d.c.
January 2010
BUSINESS VALUE CHAIN
Business Value Chain
PROCESOS DE DIRECCIÓN

GESTIÓN
GESTIÓN GERENCIAL
GERENCIAL
Marke ti ng

PROCESOS OPERATIVOS

Satisfacción
Satisfacción
Nivel 0 EXPLORACIÓN PRODUCCIÓN
PRODUCCIÓN COMERCIALIZACIÓN
EXPLORACIÓN COMERCIALIZACIÓN del
del cliente
cliente
Requisitos
interno
interno
Requisitos y externo
del cliente y externo
del cliente
interno y
interno y
externo
externo
Nivel 1
NEGOCIACIÓN Y
NEGOCIACIÓN Y
IDENTIFICACIÓN
IDENTIFICACIÓN DEFINICIÓN PERFORACIÓN TRATAMIENTO ALMACENA Cumplimiento
Cumplimiento
ADQUISICIÓN OPORTUNIDADES DEFINICIÓN PERFORACIÓN EXTRACCIÓN RECOLECCIÓN TRATAMIENTO ALMACENA DESPACHO TRANSPORTE VENTA
ADQUISICIÓN
DE BLOQUES
OPORTUNIDADES
DE EXPLORATORIAS
DE PROSPECTOS
DE PROSPECTOS
EXPLORATORIA
EXPLORATORIA
EXTRACCIÓN RECOLECCIÓN Y SEPARACIÓN
Y SEPARACIÓN
MIENTO DESPACHO TRANSPORTE VENTA de
de
Requisitos DE BLOQUES MIENTO
Requisitos DE EXPLORATORIAS requisitos
legales requisitos
legales legales
legales
Nivel 2 MODELAMIENTO
MODELAMIENTO PERFORACIÓN
PERFORACIÓN
DE YACIMIENTOS DESARROLLO
DE YACIMIENTOS DESARROLLO

PROCESOS DE APOYO

COMPRAS OBRAS GESTIÓN SEGURIDAD

COMPRAS YY MANTENIMIENTO HSEQ
OBRAS GESTIÓN SEGURIDAD
LOGISTICA MANTENIMIENTO HSEQ CIVILES
CIVILES TIERRAS
TIERRAS FÍSICA
FÍSICA
LOGISTICA

RECURSOS
RECURSOS CONTABILIDAD
CONTABILIDAD Y
Y SISTEMAS
SISTEMAS Y
Y RELACIONES
RELACIONES
HUMANOS FINANZAS COMUNICACIONES JURIDICA
JURIDICA COMUNIDADES
HUMANOS FINANZAS COMUNICACIONES COMUNIDADES
dm d
INTRODUCTION
 Oilfield Management
A Team Approach
Reservoir
Engineering

Environmental Production
and Safety Engineering
Engineering
Drilling
Land, Legal, and Asset Engineering
Financial Management
Services
Team Production
Geosciences Operations
– Petrophysics
– Geology Facility
Operation and
– Geophysics
Maintenance
– others Engineering
Design and
Construction
Engineering
Petroleum Engineering Categories

Drilling engineer

Production engineer

Reservoir engineer
Drilling Engineer

Drill a useable wellbore through the objective formation at the location

intended

Often Functions like a General Contractor for a Home, managing many

sub-contractors to accomplish tasks

“Deeper cheaper”
Drilling Rigs - All Shapes & Sizes
Casing Being Run in Well
Production Engineer

Responsible for producing the maximum amount of oil and/or gas from
the reservoir in cost effective manner

Usually focused on individual wells or groups of wells

Often coordinates between other asset team members

Production Operations
Artificial lift Gas and fluid separation Storage
Gas meter Gas
Gas pipeline
Oil

ptf
Water

pwf
pe

p
Reservoir Engineer

Optimize depletion plan and economics

Develops reservoir models to forecast well and reservoir

performance

Performs reserves estimates and audits for financial accounting

ROCK TYPES
Types of Rocks

Igneous Rocks (from Magma when cools and solidifies)

basalt (ext.), andesite, granite, gabbo (int.) etc.
Sedimentary Rocks (compressed and cemented)
Clastic, Organic and Chemical
sandstone, limestone, dolomite, shale, halite, etc.
Metamorphic Rocks (any type change by heat / pressure)
marble (metamorphosed limestone), schist, gneiss, etc.

Majority of important hydrocarbon reservoirs rocks are

sedimentary rocks
 Cooling & solidification
(crystallization)

Melting
Magma

rocks
Heat and Pressure
(Metamorphism)
rocks
Igneous

Metamorphic
W
de eat
po he
sit rin
io g,
n
deposition

tr
a ns
po
rt
an
d
The Rock Cycle

(Metamorphism)
Weathering, transport and

Heat and Pressure

rocks

Weathering, transport
and deposition
Sediments

Sedimentary

Compression &
Cementation
 Sedimentary Rock Classification
Clastic Rock -
Formed From Debris (weathering and erosion) of Older Rock
Rock Type Particular Diameter

Conglomerate Pebbles - 2 to 64 mm
Sandstone Sand - 0.06 to 2 mm
Siltston Silt - 0.003 to 0.06 mm
eShale Clay - Less than 0.003 mm

Nonclastic - Mostly of Chemical or Biochemical Origin

Rock Type Composition

Limestone Calcite - CaCO3

Dolomite Dolomite - CaMg(CO3)2
Salt Halite - NaCI
Gypsum Gypsum - CaSO4.2H2O
Chert Silica - SiO2
Coal Chiefly Carbon
HYDROCARBON TRAPS
 Conditions Required for
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
Mother rock
rich in organic material

Alteration
molecular structure change by heat and
hydrocarbon migrate through porous media or
fracture

Trap
trapped by a impermeable rock

Reservoir Rock
porous and permeable
Accumulation of Oil & Gas into a Reservoir
"Normal" Pressure Distribution from Surface
through a Reservoir Structure
 Hydrocarbon Traps

Trap Types
Structural
Stratigraphical
Combined
 Dome Trap

Gas
Oil

Sandstone Shale
 Fault Trap

Oil / Gas

Sand

Shale
 Structural Traps
Gas
Shale Oil Oil/Gas Closure
Trap
Contact

Sea Oil/Water
l
Contact
Oil
Fractured Basement Fold Trap

Salt Dome
Salt Oil
Diapir
 Stratigraphic Traps
Unconformity Pinch out

Uncomformity Oil/Gas
Oil/Gas

Channel Pinch Out

Oil/Gas

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

 Other Traps
Meteoric
Water
Asphalt Trap

Biodegraded
Oil/Asphalt
Partly
Water Biodegraded Oil

Hydrodynamic Trap
Hydrostatic
Head
Shale

Water
Oil
RESERVOIR FLUID OVERVIEW
Hydrocarbon
Combination of C and H

H H H H H H
H C H H C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H
METHANE ETHANE PROPANE
Other Elements Found in Reservoir Fluids

• Water (Salinity)
• H2S
• CO2
• N2
• Hg (Mercury)
API Gravity

Where
SG: Specific Gravity
API: API Gravity (60 degF)
Classification of Hydrocarbon
Black Volatile Retrograde Wet Dry
Oil Oil Gas Gas Gas
Initial Producing <1750 1750 to 3200 > 3200 > 15,000* 100,000*
Gas/Liquid
Ratio, scf/STB
Initial Stock- < 45 > 40 > 40 Up to 70 No Liquid
Tank Liquid
Gravity, API
Color of Stock- Dark Colored Lightly Colored Water White No Liquid
Tank Liquid

*For Engineering Purposes

 Classification of Hydrocarbon
Black Volatile Retrograde Wet Dry
Oil Oil Gas Gas Gas
Phase Bubble Bubblepoint Dewpoint No Phase No Phase
Change in point Change Change
Reservoir
Heptanes > 20% 20 to 12.5 < 12.5 < 4* < 0.8*
Plus, Mole
Percent
Oil Formation < 2.0 > 2.0 - - -
Volume
Factor at
Bubblepoint

*For Engineering Purposes

Classification of Crude Oil
Crude Oil °API
Extra Heavy Oil / Bitumen 10
Heavy Oil 10 – 22.3
Medium Oil 22.3 – 31.1
Light Oil 31.1 – 39
Extra Light Oil > 39
Hydrocarbon Behavior
(Single component / Constant temp.)
Hydrocarbon Behavior
(Single component / Constant temp.)
Reservoir Fluid PVT Diagram
Criocondenbar

Critical point

Criocondentherm
Phase Diagram of a Typical
Black Oil

Pressure path
in reservoir
Critical
Point Dewpoint line
Pressure, psia

Black Oil

90 0 % Liquid
Line 8
n t 790
poi 60
le
bb

50
Bu

40
30
20

10
Separator

Temperature, °F
Phase Diagram of a Typical Volatile Oil
Dewpoint line
Pressure path 1 Critical
point
in reservoir

2
Volatile oil

0
80 9
70
60
Pressure

50
% Liquid
e
in

40
tl
in
po

30
le
bb

20
Bu

3 10

Separator
int line
po
Dew

Temperature, °F
 Phase Diagram of a Typical
Retrograde Gas
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
Retrograde gas
2

e
in
tl
in
po
w
De
Pressure

Critical point
e
li n

% Liquid
nti

40
po

30
le

20
bb

15
3
Bu

10

5
Separator
0

Temperature
Phase Diagram of a Typical Wet Gas

Pressure path
in reservoir

e
lin
Pressure

Wet gas
int
o
wp
De

Critical % Liquid
point
2
e int
lin epo
l
bb

30

25

5
Bu

Separator

Temperature
Phase Diagram of a Typical Dry Gas
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
Pressure

ine
nt l

Dry gas
poi
Dew

% Liquid
2
50
25

Separator
1

Temperature
Three Gases
• Dry gas - gas at surface is same as gas in reservoir

• Wet gas - recombined surface gas and condensate

represents gas in reservoir

• Retrograde gas - recombined surface gas and

condensate represents the gas in the reservoir but
not the total reservoir fluid (retrograde condensate
stays in reservoir)
 Typical PVT Data for Differential Vaporization of an
Undersaturated Oil at Constant Temperature (305°F)
Oil Formation Volume Factor (Bo)

Oil at Surface

Pb Gas at Surface

Oil in Place
 Oil Formation Volume Factor (Bo)

Oil at Surface

Gas at Surface
Gas Volume at Surface Pb
GOR 
Oil Volume at Surface

Oil in Place
GOR ¹ Rs
Surface GOR

Vg1 Vg3
GWR Vo

Vg2

Bo
Bg Bw

Rs

Reservoir
 Gas-Oil Ratio
(for Pr < Pb and no Free Gas Cap)
    k rg 
GOR  R s   B o  o  
 
 B    k 
 g  g  ro 

where:
GOR – Production gas oil ratio
Rs – Gas in solution in oil
Bo and Bg – Oil and gas volume factors
mo and mg – Oil and gas viscosities
krg/kro – Gas/oil-relative permeability-ratio
 BASIC PARAMETERS USED
IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
Viscosity (m)
• A measure of resistance to flow
• Symbols
– o, g, w
• Units – cp
• Source – Lab measurements,
correlations
• Range and typical values
 0.25 – 10,000 cp, Black oil
 0.5 – 1.0 cp, Water
 0.012 – 0.035 cp, Gas
 Variation of Viscosity with Pr

Visc

Pb Pressure
Fluid Compressibility (Co, Cg, Cw)

· Fractional change in volume due to a unit change

in pressure
· Symbol – co, cg, cw
· Units – psi-1, microsips (1 microsip = 1x10-6 psi-1)
· Source – Lab measurements, correlations
Porosity (f)

• Total Porosity

• Effective Porosity
Cubic Packing of Spheres
Porosity = 48%
Rhombic Packing of Spheres
Porosity = 27 %
Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres
Porosity = 14%
 Intergranular Porosity

rombohedrally packed grain sorting, silt, clay and

spheres: f = 26% cementation effect porosity
Permeability (K)

or

· Permeability is the measure of capacity of

rock to transmit fluid
· Symbol : k
· Units : Darcy or milliDarcy (D or mD)
· Source : Well tests, core analysis
· Range: 0.001 mD - 10,000 mD
Definition of a Darcy
Effect of Grain Size on
Permeability
Relative Permeability (Krw, Kro)
Pore Compressibility (Cf)
Net Pay Thickness
Shale
h1 Sand

h2

h3

hnet = h1 + h2 + h3
Saturations (Sw, So, Sg)
H2O
Archie’s Equation

where:
Sw: water saturation
a: constant
f: porosity
m: cementation factor
Rw: formation water resistivity
Rt: true resistivity (measured by deep
resistivity measurement)
Types of Openhole Logs to Determine
Saturation

Resistivity log
Induction tools
Laterolog tools
Porosity log
Neutron tools
Density tools
Sonic tools
Magnetic resonance tools
Wellbore Radius (rw)

rw

Bit Size
or
Caliper Reading
Total Compressibility (Ct)

Typically,
Cw : 3E-6
Co : 6E-6 (Black oil)
Cg : 1/pressure
Cf : 4E-6
 CALCULATION OF
HYDROCARBON VOLUMES
Oil Initially In Place (OIIP or POES)

Where;
A: Area
h: Thickness
f: Porosity
Sw: Water Saturation
Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place

Where:
A: area h: formation thickness
f: porosity Sw: water saturation
Bo: formation volume factor
What are Reserves?

Oil and gas trapped beneath the earth’s

surface that can be recovered under
existing economic conditions and with
current technology
Recovery Factor
Affected by:
Reservoir Rock
Fluid Properties
Reservoir Continuity, Heterogeneity
Economic Conditions
where:

N: stock tank oil originally in place

Np: cumulative stock tank oil prod.
 Reserves Uncertainty
I II III

Range of
Increasing Recovery Estimates
Recovery
True Ultimate
Recovery
Cumulative
Production

Time
Wells Abandonment At
Completed Economic Limit
Where in the World are those
Reserves?
RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISM
Oil Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

Solution-gas drive
Gas-cap drive
Water drive
Combination drive
Gravity-drainage drive
 Reservoir Energy Sources
· Liberation, expansion of solution gas

· Influx of aquifer water

· Expansion of reservoir rock and compression of pore volume

· Expansion of original reservoir fluids

-Free gas
-Interstitial water
-Oil, if present

· Gravitational forces
Solution Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Solution Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs

· No original gas cap or aquifer

· Main source(s) of reservoir energy

liberation and expansion of dissolved gas

· Possible secondary gas cap

liberated free gas can migrate up-structure

· Typical production characteristics

Rapid GOR increase after Pb
Solution Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Formation of Secondary Gas Cap
 Solution Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Typical Production Characteristics
Initial reservoir
pressure
Reservoir pressure, psig

Bubblepoint
pressure

0 5 10 15
Oil recovery, % of OOIP
Reservoir pressure behavior
 Solution Gas Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Typical Production Characteristics

400
Oil production rate, STB/D

800 400

Gas/oil ratio, SCF/STB

Pressure, psia

600 Gas/oil
ratio 300
300

400 Reservoir 200

200 pressure

200 Oil production rate 100

100

0 0
0
Time, years
Production data
 Gas Cap Drive

Oil producing well

Oil Oil
zone Gas cap zone

Cross Section
 Gas Cap Drive
· Free gas phase exists as an original gas cap

· Pure gas-cap drive reservoir has no aquifer

· Main source(s) of reservoir energy

Expansion of gas cap and liberation and expansion of
solution gas in the oil zone

· Gas cap expands pushing GOC down and maintaining

higher pressure
· Good sweep

· Typical production characteristics

Dramatic GOR increase when gas breakthrough
 Gas Cap Drive
Typical Production Characteristics
Oil production rate, Pressure, psia
1300
Reservoir pressure
1200
1100

Gas/oil ratio, scf/STB

1000
900 800
Gas/oil ratio
600
400
MSTB/D

2 200
0
Oil
1

0
Time, years

Production data
 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
· Oil zone in communication with acquifer

· Main source(s) of reservoir energy

Influx of acquifer water - edge-water drive, bottom-water
drive

· Pressure decline relatively slow

· GOR kept relatively low and stable

· Water production increases steadily

· Oil production declines when water breakthrough

· Reasonable sweep - depends on mobility ratio

Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Edge-Water Drive

Oil producing well

Oil Zone

Water Water

Cross Section
Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Bottom-Water Drive

Oil producing well

Oil Zone

Water

Cross Section
 Water Drive in Oil Reservoirs
Typical Production Characteristics
Oil production rate, Pressure, psia
2300

Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

2200 Reservoir pressure
2100
2000 Gas/oil ratio
2
1900 1 40

Water cut, %
0 30
100 Water
20
80 10
MSTB/D

60 0
Oil
40
20
0
Time, years

Production data
Combination Drive in Oil Reservoirs

Gas cap

Oil zone

Water

Cross Section
Gravity Drainage in Oil Reservoirs
Main energy - gravitational force
Good drainage efficiency and recovery factor

Gas

Gas

Oil

Gas
Oil Point C

Point B
Oil
Point A
 Pressure Trend
100

Water drive
80
Reservoir pressure,
Percent of original

60
Gas-cap drive

40

Solution
gas drive
20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place

Reservoir pressure trends

 GOR Trend
5

Solution-
4 gas drive
Gas/oil ratio, MSCF/STB

Gas-cap drive
3

1
Water drive

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place

Gas/oil ratio trends