Unit 4.

Ranking:

refining the choice

New approaches to Materials Education - a course authored by

Mike Ashby and David Cebon, Cambridge, UK, 2007
© MFA and DC 2007
 Outline

 Selection has 4 basic steps

Step 1 Translation: express design requirements as constraints

and objectives Unit 3
Step 2 Screening: eliminate materials that cannot do the job

Step 3 Ranking: find the materials that do the job best This
Unit
Step 4 Documentation: explore pedigrees of top-ranked Unit 3
candidates

 Exercises

More info:
 “Materials: engineering, science, processing and design”, Chapter 3, 4 and 6

 “Materials Selection in Mechanical Design”, Chapters 5 and 6

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 Analysis of design requirements

Express design requirements as constraints and objectives

Bike frame Design requirements

A label

Must be
 Stiff enough
Function What does the
 Strong enough
component do ?
 Tough enough
Constraints What essential  Able to be welded
conditions must be met ?

What is the criterion Minimize

Objectives
of excellence ?  Cost
 Weight
What can be varied  Volume
Free variable
?
 Eco-impact

Choice of
material
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 The CD case, with an objective

Translation

Function CD enclosure

Design requirements
 Injection-moldable
 Contain and protect CD
better than the PS case.
 As transparent as PS
 Eco-friendly
 As cheap as possible
Constraints
1. Can be injection molded
2. Optically clear
3. Toughness K1c > that of PS
4. Can be recycled
OBJECTIVE Minimise material cost
Free variable Choice of material

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 Screening and ranking: the CD case

Select Level 2: Materials

OBJECTIVE Minimise material cost C
1 Tree stage: injection mold Volume of material in case, V, fixed
Density , cost per unit mass Cm
Fracture toughness

Keep these!
Material cost/case C = V Cm 
Polystyrene

2 Rank on this index

Surviving materials
Polycarbonate
Cost metric Cm 
Optical properties Cellulose acetate

 Optical quality 3
PMMA
Transparency Transparent
2
Translucent
3 1 Polystyrene
Opaque Ranking
Eco properties
Recycle

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 Advanced ranking: modelling performance

The method:

1. Identify function, constraints, objective and free variables

(list simple constraints for screening).

2. Write down equation for objective -- the “performance equation”.

If the performance equation involves a free variable (other than

the material):
 Identify the constraint that limits it.
 Use this to eliminate the free variable in performance equation.

3. Read off the combination of material properties that

maximises performance -- the material index

4. Use this for ranking

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 Example 1: strong, light tie-rod

Strong tie of length L and minimum mass

Function Tie-rod F F
Area A L

Constraints  Length L is specified

m = mass
 Must not fail under load F A = area
Equation for constraint on A: L = length
F/A < y (1)  = density
 y= yield strength
Objective Minimize mass m:
m = AL (2)

Free variables  Material choice

Eliminate A in (2) using (1):
 Section area A.

Performance    ρ 

mFL   Chose materials with smallest 

metric m  y  σ y 


  

(or maximize σ y / ρ )
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 Example 2: stiff, light beam
Stiff beam of length L and minimum mass
Function Beam
Square
b section,
area
 Length L is specified L A = b2
Constraints  Must have bending stiffness >
m = mass
S* A = area
Equation for constraint on A:
L = length
CEI CE A2  = density
S 3
 3 (1) E = Young’s modulus
L 12 L
I = second moment of area
Objective Minimize mass m: (I = b4/12 = A2/12)
C = constant (here, 48)
m = AL (2)

Free variables  Material choice

 Section area A. Eliminate A in (2) using (1):
1/ 2
Performance  12 L5 S*     Chose materials  ρ 
m   1/ 2   1/2 
metric m  C  E  with smallest
  E 
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 Material “indices”

Function has a
Each combination of Constraint characterising
Objective
Free variable material index
FUNCTION
Tie
CONSTRAINTS
Minimise this!
Beam
Stiffness OBJECTIVE
specified
Minimum cost
Shaft INDEX
Strength
specified Minimum
  
Column weight M   1/ 2 
Fatigue limit E 
Minimum
Geometry volume
specified
Mechanical,
Minimum
Thermal,
eco- impact
Electrical...

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 Demystifying material indices
 A material index is just the combination of material properties that
appears in the equation for performance (eg minimizing mass or cost).

 Sometimes a single property

Either is a material index
 Sometimes a combination

Constraints
Example: Function Stiffness Strength
Tension (tie)
Objective -- ρ/E ρ/σ y
minimise mass
Bending (beam)
Performance
ρ/E1/2 ρ/σ2/3
metric = mass Bending (panel) y

ρ/E1/3 ρ/σ1/2
y

(Or maximize
Minimize these! reciprocals)
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 Optimized selection using charts


1/ 2
C
Light stiff beam: E
1000
ρ
Index M 
E1/2 Ceramics

Young’s modulus E, (GPa)

100 Decreasing M
Composites
Rearrange:
E  ρ2 / M2 Woods
10
Take logs:
Metals
Log E = 2 log  - 2 log M 1 Slope 2
2
Polymers
0.1
Contours of constant
M are lines of slope 2 Foams Elastomers
on an E- chart 0.01
0.1 1 10 100
Density (Mg/m )
3

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2007
 The chart-management tool bar

Zoom Un-zoom
Add
Add text
envelopes
Cancel Black and white
selection chart
Box selection Grey failed
tool materials

Line selection Hide failed

tool materials

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 Optimized selection using charts


1/ 2
C
E

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 The main points

 The four steps of selection

1. Translation, giving constraints and objectives
2. Screening , using constraints
Needed for
3. Ranking, using objectives, giving indices
optimized selection
4. Documentation for prime candidates

 CES allows
screening using limit stages, graph stages and tree stages
ranking, using graph stages
search for supporting information, using web portal.

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Demo

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 Exercise: selecting light, strong materials (1)

4.1 The material index for selecting light

Browse Select Search
strong materials is
M =y / 
1. Selection data
where  y is the yield strength and  the
Edu
Edu Level
Level2:
2: Materials
Materials
density.
 Make a Graph stage with these two 2. Selection Stages
properties as axes
Graph Limit Tree
 Impose a selection line (slope 1) to find
materials with the highest values of M.
Min Max
 Add a Limit stage to impose the additional y Density
High

Strength  y
constraint:  Modulus
Strength
Elongation > 10% 1
Elongation 10
etc

Results: Density 
 Age-hardening wrought Al-alloys
 Nickel-based superalloys
 Titanium alloys
 Wrought magnesium alloys

©© MFA
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 Exercise: selecting light, strong materials (2)

4.2 Repeat the selection of 4.1, but use the Browse Select Search
Advanced facility to make a bar-chart with
the index
1. Selection data
M = y / 
Edu
Edu Level
Level2:
2: Materials
Materials
on the Y-axis.
 Impose a Box selection to find materials 2. Selection Stages
with the highest values of M.
Graph Limit Tree

y
High Min Max
 Yield strength / Density
Index y /

Density Modulus
Strength
+ - / * ^ ( )
Elongation 10
List of properties
 Density
etc
 Modulus
 Yield strength
 Add a Limit stage to impose the  etc

additional constraint:
Elongation > 10%

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 Exercise: selecting materials for springs (1)

4.3 A material is required for a spring that may be

exposed to shock loading, and must operate in Browse Select Search
fresh and salt water.
Constraints: 1. Selection data
 Fracture toughness > 15 MPa.m1/2 Edu
Edu Level
Level2:
2: Materials
Materials
 Very good durability in fresh and salt water
Objective: 2. Selection Stages
 Maximise stored elastic energy Graph Limit Tree

The best materials for

Min Max
springs are those with the  2y Density
y
Stress

greatest value of High

Strength  y
E Fr. toughness 15
the index Elastic energy
 2y
etc
2 0.5
1 1 y Fresh water v. good
E y y  Salt water v. good
2 2 E

Strain  Modulus E
Make a graph with
 Young’s modulus E on the X-axis
 Yield strength y on the Y-axis
 Put on a line of slope 0.5 (corresponding to power
2)
 Select materials above the line
 Add the other constraints using a limit stage
©© MFA
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2007
 Exercise: selecting materials for springs (2)

4.4 Repeat the selection of 4.3, but use the

Advanced facility to make a bar-chart with Browse Select Search
the index
 2y / E
on the Y-axis. 1. Selection data
.Plot the bar chart Edu
Edu Level
Level2:
2: Materials
Materials
 Use a box selection to select the materials
with high values of the index 2. Selection Stages
Graph Limit Tree
 2y
High
Index y2 /E

E Min Max
(Yield strength^2)/ Density
Young’s modulus Fr. toughness 15
etc
+ - / * ^ ( )
Fresh water v. good
List of properties v. good
Salt water
 Density
 Modulus
 Add the other constraints using a limit stage  Yield strength
 etc
Results:
 CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic)
 Nickel-based superalloys
 Titanium alloys

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and DC
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2007
End of Unit 4

©© MFA
MFA and
and DC
DC2007
2007