Chapter 18

Fire Cause Determination

 Fire Officer I Objectives
• Identify the common causes of fire.
• Explain when to request a fire
investigator.
• Describe how to find the point of origin
of a fire.
• Discuss the legal considerations of fire
cause determination.
 Fire Officer II Objectives

• Discuss the nature of fire investigation.

• Describe how to find the point of origin
of a fire.
• Describe how to determine the cause of
the fire.
• Describe the fire cause classifications.
 Fire Officer II Objectives

• Describe the indicators of incendiary

fire.
• Discuss arson.
• Describe the documents and reports a
fire officer must complete.
 Fire Officer II Objectives

• Describe how a fire investigation

continues after fire official involvement
has ended.
 Introduction

• An investigation is conducted to
determine how a fire started.
• Understanding the cause:
– Helps prevent future fires
– Helps determine if criminal acts were
involved
 Introduction

• The incident commander is responsible

for conducting the investigation.
• The legal responsibility for conducting
the investigation is defined by state or
local legislation or regulations.
 Common Causes of Fires
• A relatively small
number of causes
are responsible for a
large number of
fires.
 Requesting an Investigator

• The fire officer should determine the

point of origin and probable cause.
– On small or routine incidents, this is the
only investigation conducted.
 Requesting an Investigator
• A set of guidelines
explains when to
request an
investigator:
– Death or serious

© Stud Milne/AP Images

burn injury
– Deliberate fire
– Large-loss fire
– Possible crime
 Fire Growth and Development

• To determine the fire’s point of origin,

the fire officer must understand fire
behavior, growth, and development.
• Three methods of heat transfer:
– Conduction
– Convection
– Radiation
 Disabled Built-in Fire
Protection
• May be encountered in fires involving
industrial or commercial occupancies
• Look for damage or vandalism:
– Sprinkler hook-ups
– Hose cabinets
– Hard-wired smoke detectors
– High-rise communication systems
 Delayed Notification or
Difficulty Getting to the Fire
• Be alert for conditions that delay the fire
department’s ability to get to the fire:
– Malfunctioning keys or key cards
– Vandalized doors
– Materials blocking access
– Points of origin in the attic, the basement,
or a closet
 Tampered or Altered
Equipment
• Document unusual conditions:
– Indications of forcible entry
– Altered electrical devices
– Use of excessive fuel
 Legal Considerations

• The fire officer who investigated the fire

may be called to testify in court.
– May be challenged on issues of proper
procedure
 Searches

• Typically no search warrant is needed

to enter the fire scene, collect evidence,
and determine the cause of a fire.
• A warrant is required after fire origin and
cause have been determined:
– Administrative search warrant
– Criminal search warrant
 Securing the Scene

• If the fire officer suspects a crime has

occurred:
– Immediately request a fire investigator.
– Secure the scene and maintain custody
until the investigator arrives.
 Evidence

• Evidence: material objects and

statements that are admissible as
testimony in a court of law
– Demonstrative evidence
– Documentary evidence
– Testimonial evidence
 Evidence

• Artifacts could include:

– Remains of the material first ignited
– Remains of the ignition source
– An item on which fire patterns are present
 Evidence Must Be Protected

• The investigator’s goal is to identify the

point of origin and the cause of the fire.
– Fire scene reconstruction: re-creating the
physical scene before the fire occurred,
either physically or theoretically
 Evidence Must Be Protected
• The investigator
must locate,
examine, and
preserve evidence.
– The fire officer must
determine when to
stop firefighting
operations as part of

© Glen E. Ellman
this effort.
 The Nature of Fire
Investigation
• Fire investigation involves skill,
technology, knowledge, and science.
– Factual data must be compiled and analyzed.
– Investigations must be systematic.
– The origin must be determined before the
cause is settled.
 Finding the Point of Origin

• Point of origin: exact location where a

heat source and fuel came in contact
• The fire investigator usually starts in the
area where the least amount of damage
occurred.
 Finding the Point of Origin

• To find the point of origin, the

investigator analyzes:
– Fire patterns left by the fire
– Observations of witnesses
– The physics and chemistry of fire initiation,
development, and growth
– Any location and circuit where electrical
arcing has caused damage
 Fire Patterns
• The point of origin can

Courtesy of Eddie D. Smith/Unified Investigations &

often be identified by
fire patterns.
– Movement pattern: V-
or U-shaped pattern

Sciences, Inc.
– Intensity pattern:
response of materials to
the rate of heat release
and flux
 Fire Patterns
• Char: blackened
remains of carbon-
based material after
it burns
– Helps determine:

© Vladimir Zanadvorov/ShutterStock, Inc.

• Direction of fire
spread
• Apparent duration and
intensity
 Determining the Cause
of the Fire
• Cause: circumstances and factors that
were necessary for the fire to occur
– Determine the source of ignition.
– Determine the fuel that was first ignited.
– Determine the circumstances or human
actions that allowed the ignition source and
fuel to come together.
 Source and Form of
Heat Ignition
• Source of ignition: energy source that
caused the material to ignite
– A competent ignition source has three
properties:
• Generation
• Transmission
• Heating
 Material First Ignited

• Type of material: nature of the material

• Form of material: how the material was
used
 Ignition Factor or Cause

• Could be a human act

• Could be related to:
– Mechanical failure
– Poor or improper assembly of a device
– Worn-out piece of equipment
– Natural force
 Ignition Factor or Cause

• Failure analysis: logical, systematic

examination of an item, component,
assembly, or structure
– Identifies the probability, causes, and
consequences of potential and real failures
 Fire Analysis

• Scientific process of examining a fire

occurrence to determine relevant facts:
– Origin
– Cause
– Subsequent development
– Responsibility for whatever occurred
 Fire Analysis
• The fire officer may need to construct a
timeline of events.

Reproduced with permission from NFPA 921, Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations, Copyright © 2008, National Fire Protection Association. This reprinted material is not
the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.
 Conducting Interviews

• Interview victims, witnesses, fire

fighters, and suspected perpetrators.
– Conduct separate interviews.
– Use open-ended questions.
– Conduct interviews at the fire scene.
– Document interview information.
 Vehicle Fire Cause
Determination
• Determine the fire’s point of origin.
• Determine the cause.
• Look for indications of arson.
 Vehicle Fire Cause
Determination
• Consider sources of
accidental ignition.
• Note the make,

© AlexKalashnikov/ShutterStock, Inc.
model, and year of
the vehicle, and the
VIN.
• Interview the
driver(s).
 Wildland Fire Cause
Determination
• The amount and cost of wildland fire
suppression efforts are increasing.
• Different characteristics from structure
fires:
– Influenced by environmental conditions
– Spread vertically through convection and
horizontally through radiation
 Wildland Fire Cause
Determination
• Factors affecting the
rate of spread:
– Type and density of
material burning
– Wind speed and
direction
– Humidity and fuel
moisture content
– Slope of the terrain
and natural features

© AbleStock
 Wildland Fire Cause Evidence

• Campfire remains • Fulgurites

• Time-delay devices • Barrels used to burn
• Cigarette remains trash
• Lighters • Fallen wires
• Multiple ignition • Trees on power
points lines
• Splintered trees • Railroad tracks
 Fire Cause Classifications

• Accidental
• Natural
• Incendiary
• Undetermined
 Accidental Fire Causes
• Leading causes of

Courtesy of the NJ State Fire Marshal’s Office, Arson/K-9 Unit.

residential fires:
1. Unattended
cooking
2. Smoking materials
3. Heating
 Accidental Fire Causes
• Pyrolysis lowers ignition temperature.
– Consider it if the area of origin includes
steam pipes, fluorescent light ballasts, flue
pipes for a fireplace, or a wood-burning
stove.
• The most common electrical fire
scenario is misuse by the occupant.
 Natural Fire Causes

• Lightning • Floods
• Earthquakes • Hurricanes
• Tornadoes • Volcanoes
 Incendiary Fire Causes

• Intentionally started fires

• Not necessarily arson
• The fire officer may help determine the
fire’s cause and origin and classify it as
incendiary.
– The prosecutor or grand jury decides
whether it is arson.
 Undetermined Fire Causes

• Sometimes the cause of a fire cannot

be determined.
– Damage too extensive
– Multiple causes can’t be ruled out
– Not enough evidence or absence of any
logical cause
 Indicators of Incendiary
Fires
• Eliminate accidental and natural causes
• Conditions indicating intentional fire:
– Disabled built-in fire protection
– Delayed notification/difficulty getting to fire
– Accelerants and trailers
– Multiple points of origin
– Tampered or altered equipment
 Accelerants and Trailers
• Accelerants: agents
used to initiate a fire
or increase the rate
of fire growth

Courtesy of Robert A. Corry/SceneInvestigator.com

 Accelerants and Trailers

• Trailers: materials used to spread a fire

from one area of a structure to another
– Paper towels
– Gasoline or other flammable liquids
– Decorative streamers
– Newspapers
 Multiple Points of Origin

• Arsonists setting multiple ignition points

• Materials falling from the ceiling and
creating a secondary “U” or “V” pattern
• Electrical surge causing ignition points
at different locations
 Arson

• Crime of maliciously and intentionally or

recklessly starting a fire
– Highest rate of juvenile involvement
compared with other serious felonies
 Arson Motives
• Profit • Crime concealment
– To collect insurance – To destroy
money embezzlement
– To facilitate extortion records
– To eliminate – To destroy evidence
competition of other crimes
– To distract
responders while a
crime is taking place
 Arson Motives
• Excitement • Extremism
– To seek thrills, – To cause a monetary
attention, or loss to a business
recognition – To bring attention to
• Spite/revenge a cause
– To express hatred or • Vandalism
jealousy – To cause damage for
its own sake
 Documentation and Reports

• All fires must be documented and

reported according to the fire
department’s standard procedures.
– Most departments use the NFIRS or a
variation.
 Documentation and Reports

• Basic report elements:

– Incident number
– Alarm time, date, and location
– Property ownership
– Building construction/occupancy type
– Weather conditions
– Responding units and personnel
 Preliminary Investigation
Document
• Information included:
– Receipt of alarm
– Response to the incident
– Accessibility at the scene
– Fire suppression
– Civilian contacts
– Scene integrity
 Investigation Report

• Information provided in chronological

order:
– Description of the structure before the
event
– Alarm notification information
– Results of the fire scene examination
 Investigation Report

• Attachments to this report:

– Information obtained from witnesses and
responders
– Statements of evidence
– Warrants
– Sketches
 Legal Proceedings
• The fire officer may
be called on to
testify in court as a
witness.
– Prepare by

© Corbis/age fotostock
reviewing:
• Reports
• Photographs
• Diagrams
• Previous depositions
 Legal Proceedings

• Dress appropriately.
• Follow the prosecutor’s directions.
• Sit up with both feet on the floor.
• Avoid gesturing.
• Keep answers short and to the point.
 Legal Proceedings

• Use language a jury can understand.

• Be courteous and patient.
• Be honest.
• Do not hesitate answering questions.
• Speak clearly and loudly.
• If you do not remember, do not guess.
 After the Fire Officials Are
Gone
• Many investigations continue long after
the department has cleared the event.
– The fire investigator is interested in
determining the cause and origin.
– Insurance company investigators may also
be present.
 Summary

• To prevent future fires, it is important to

understand the causes of past fires.
• The fire officer should be able to
determine a point of origin and a cause.
• To determine the point of origin, the fire
officer must understand fire growth and
the three methods of heat transfer.
 Summary

• The fire investigator must take into

account a citizen’s rights.
• A fire officer who suspects a crime
should request a fire investigator.
• There are three types of evidence:
demonstrative, documentary, and
testimonial.
 Summary

• Fire scene reconstruction involves re-

creating the scene before the fire
occurred.
• The first step in fire cause determination
is to identify the point of origin.
• Fire analysis involves examining fire
occurrence.
 Summary

• Fire departments respond to more

vehicle fires than structure fires.
• Wildland fires are influenced by
environmental conditions.
• Fire cause classifications include
accidental, natural, incendiary, and
undetermined.
 Summary

• Arson is the crime of maliciously

starting a fire or causing an explosion.
• All fires must be properly documented
and reported.
• The fire officer often writes up a special
report if the cause is incendiary or the
circumstances are unusual.
 Summary

• In the investigation report, the

information is provided in chronological
order.
• Many fire investigations continue long
after the fire department has cleared the
event.