Topics: Descriptive Statistics

• A road map
• Examining data through frequency
distributions
• Measures of central tendency
• Measures of variability
• The normal curve
• Standard scores and the standard normal
distribution
 The Role of Description
• Description as a purpose of research
• Choosing the right statistical procedures
Raw Data: Overachievement Study
 Frequency Distributions

• A method of summarizing and highlighting

aspects of the data in a data matrix, showing
the frequency with which each value occurs.
• Numerical Representations: a tabular
arrangement of scores
• Graphical Representations: a pictorial
arrangement of scores
 Numerical Frequency
Distributions
• Ungrouped Frequency Distributions
• Grouped Frequency Distributions
• Relative Frequency Distributions
• Cumulative Frequency Distributions
 Tabular Frequency
Distributions
Single-Variable (“Univariate”)
 Frequency Distribution: Major

MAJOR
Valid Cum
Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent Percent
PHYSICS 1.00 5 12.5 12.5 12.5
CHEMISTRY 2.00 4 10.0 10.0 22.5
BIOLOGY 3.00 7 17.5 17.5 40.0
ENGINEERING 4.00 5 12.5 12.5 52.5
ANTHROPOLOGY 5.00 5 12.5 12.5 65.0
SOCIOLOGY 6.00 4 10.0 10.0 75.0
ENGLISH 7.00 7 17.5 17.5 92.5
DESIGN 8.00 3 7.5 7.5 100.0
------- ------- -------
Total 40 100.0 100.0
Valid cases 40 Missing cases 0
Frequency Distribution: Major Group

MAJORGRP
Valid Cum
Value Label Value Frequency Percent Percent
SCIENCE & ENGINEERIN 1.00 21 52.5 52.5 52.5
SOCIAL SCIENCE 2.00 9 22.5 22.5 75.0
HUMANITIES 3.00 10 25.0 25.0 100.0
------- ------- -------
Total 40 100.0 100.0
Frequency Distribution: SAT
SAT
Valid Cum
Value Frequency Percent Percent
1000.00 2 5.0 5.0 5.0
1025.00 1 2.5 2.5 7.5
1050.00 2 5.0 5.0 12.5
1060.00 1 2.5 2.5 15.0
1075.00 1 2.5 2.5 17.5
1080.00 1 2.5 2.5 20.0
1085.00 1 2.5 2.5 22.5
1090.00 2 5.0 5.0 27.5
1100.00 7 17.5 17.5 45.0
1120.00 2 5.0 5.0 50.0
1125.00 3 7.5 7.5 57.5
1130.00 1 2.5 2.5 60.0
1150.00 5 12.5 12.5 72.5
1160.00 2 5.0 5.0 77.5
1175.00 3 7.5 7.5 85.0
1185.00 1 2.5 2.5 87.5
1200.00 5 12.5 12.5 100.0
------- ------- -------
Total 40 100.0 100.0
Valid cases 40 Missing cases 0
Grouped Frequency Distribution:
SAT
 Graphical Frequency
Distributions
• Bar Graphs
• Histograms
• Stem and Leaf
• Frequency Polygons
• Pie Chart
 Graphical
Graphical Frequency
Frequency
Distributions:
Distributions:

Single-Variable
Single-Variable (“Univariate”)
(“Univariate”)
 Bar Chart: Major
Bar Chart
F 8
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q 6
u
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c 4
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3

1
0
PHYSICS BIOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY ENGLISH
CHEMISTRY ENGINEERING SOCIOLOGY DESIGN

MAJOR
 Histogram: SAT
(From Grouped Data)
Frequency Polygon Overlay: SAT
(From Grouped Data)
Frequency Polygon: SAT
(From Grouped Data)
 Frequency Polygon: SAT Scores
(From Ungrouped Data)

Frequency Polygon: SAT

C 8
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5
4
3
2
1
0
1000.00 1050.00 1075.00 1085.00 1100.00 1125.00 1150.00 1175.00 1200.00
1025.00 1060.00 1080.00 1090.00 1120.00 1130.00 1160.00 1185.00

SAT
 Cumulative Frequency Polygon: SAT
Scores

C 50
u
m
u 40
l
a
t 30
i
v
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20
F
r
e 10
q
u
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n 1000.00 1050.00 1075.00 1085.00 1100.00 1125.00 1150.00 1175.00 1200.00
c 1025.00 1060.00 1080.00 1090.00 1120.00 1130.00 1160.00 1185.00
y
SAT
Stem and Leaf: SAT
 Stem and Leaf: SAT
SAT Stem-and-Leaf Plot

Frequency Stem & Leaf

3.00 10 . 002
8.00 10 . 55678899
13.00 11 . 0000000222223
11.00 11 . 55555667778
5.00 12 . 00000

Stem width: 100.00

Each leaf: 1 case(s)
 Graphical
Graphical Frequency
Frequency
Distributions
Distributions
Two-Variable
Two-Variable (“Joint”
(“Joint” or
or “Bivariate”)
“Bivariate”)
 Relative Frequency Polygon: GPA
Comparison of Majors
P 40
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t
20

MAJORGRP
10 SCIENCE & ENGINEERIN
SOCIAL SCIENCE
0 HUMANITIES
2.00 2.50 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60
2.30 2.70 2.90 3.10 3.30 3.50

GPA
 Relative Frequency Polygon: GPA
Comparison of Gender
P 30
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20

10

SEX
MALE

0 FEMALE
2.00 2.30 2.50 2.70 2.80 2.90 3.00 3.10 3.20 3.30 3.40 3.50 3.60

GPA
 What Can Be Seen in Frequency
Distributions
• Shape
• Central Tendency
• Variability
Shapes of Frequency Polygons
 Shapes of Distributions

Bell-Shaped Hump in Distribution Hump in Distribution

Prototype: at High Score End at Low Score End
Normal Distribution Tail at Low Score End Tail at High Score End

SYMMETRIC NEGATIVELY SKEWED POSITIVELY SKEWED

Very Peaked in the Center Peak Just Like Flat in the Center
Compared to the Compared to
Normal Distribution Normal Distribution Normal Distribution

LEPTOKURTIC MESOKURTIC PLATYKURTIC

 Descriptive Statistics
• Central Tendency
– Mode
– Median
– Mean
• Variability
– Range
– Standard Deviation
– Variance
 Definitions:
Measures of Central Tendency
• Mean:
– “Arithmetic mean”
– “Center of gravity” such that the “weight” of the scores
above the mean exactly balances the “weight” of the
scores below the mean
• Median:
– The number that lies at the midpoint of the distribution
of scores; divides the distribution into two equal halves
• Mode:
– Most frequently occurring score
 Mean, Median, Mode:
SAT Scores by Gender

Group Mode Median Mean

Male 1200 1112.50 1112.00

Female 1100 1122.50 1129.50

Total 1100.00 1122.50 1122.75

 Mean, Median, Mode:
SAT Scores by Area

Group Mode Median Mean

Humanities 1100 1092.50 1095.00

Social Sciences 1100 1100.00 1108.89

Sciences 1150,1200 1150.00 1138.10

Total 1100 1122.50 1122.75

Relative Position of Mode, Median,
and Mean
 Definitions:
Measures of Variability

• Range:
– Difference between highest and lowest score
• Inter-quartile Range:
– The spread of the middle 50% of the scores
– The difference between the top 25% (Upper Quartile-Q3) and the lower
25% (Lower Quartile-Q1)
• Standard Deviation:
– The average dispersion or deviation of scores around the mean (measured
in original score units)
• Variance:
– The average variability of scores (measured in squared units of the
original scores (square of the standard deviation)
Range, Interquartile Range, and Standard
Deviation: SAT Scores by Area

Group Range IQ Range Standard

Deviation

Humanities 200 35.00 55.88

Social Sciences 95 15.00 28.59

Sciences 200 27.50 57.00

 Range, Interquartile Range, and Standard
Deviation: SAT Scores by Gender

Group Range IQ Range Standard

Deviation
Males 200 100 60.92

Females 175 75 46.02

Total 200 70 54.02

 Properties of Normal Distribution

• Bell-shaped (unimodal)
• Symmetric about the mean
• Mode, median, and mean are equal (though
rarely occurs)
• Asymptotic (curve never touches the
abscissa)
 Normal Curve
Areas Under the Curve

.3413 .3413

.1359 .1359
68%

.0214 .0214
95%
.0013 .0013
99%
-3s -2s -1s +1s +2s +3s
X
 Definitions: Standard Scores
• Standard Scores: scores expressed as SD
away from the mean (z-scores)
• Obtained by finding how far a score is above
or below the mean and dividing that
difference by the SD
• Changes mean to 0 and SD to 1, but does not
change the shape (called Standard Normal
Distribution)
 Uses of Standard Normal
Distribution
• What proportion of scores falls between the mean
and a given raw score
• What proportion of scores falls above or below a
given raw score
• What proportion of scores falls between two raw
scores
• What raw score fall above (or below) a certain
percentage of scores