SKELETAL STRUCTURE OF

THE EQUINE FORELIMB

University of Liverpool,
School of Veterinary Science

Enter
Enter

Created by
Mr P P Tomlinson
Liverpool Veterinary Student
 Introduction
Welcome to “Skeletal Structure of the Equine
Forelimb” this resource has been created as
part of the “Online Veterinary Anatomy
Museum” (OVAM) in conjunction with
Liverpool Vet School.
It aims to provide a detailed guide to the
relevant bony landmarks present on the equine
forelimb (Chapter One) and also highlight
certain ligaments and tendons, particularly in
reference to the joints (Chapter Two).

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 Resource Map: Chapter One
 Forelimb Overview
 Scapula: Lateral View
 Scapula: Medial View
 Humerus: Lateral View
 Humerus: Medial View
 Humerus: Cranial View
 Humerus: Caudal View
 Radius and Ulna: Lateral View
 Radius and Ulna: Medial View
 Radius and Ulna: Cranial View
 Radius and Ulna: Caudal View
 Carpus
 Carpal Bones
 Manus Overview
 Below the Carpus
 Metacarpal Region
 Proximal Paired Sesamoids
 Proximal Phalanx
 Middle Phalanx
 Navicular Bone
 Distal Phalanx: Dorsal View
 Distal Phalanx: Cranial View
 Distal Phalanx: Ventral View
 Distal Phalanx: Caudal View
 Hoof: Dorsal View
 Hoof: Ventral View
 Information Slides
 Scapula Information
 Humerus Information
 Condyle: Cranial View
 Condyle: Caudal View
 Radius and Ulna Information
 Carpus Information
 Metacarpal Region Information
 Proximal Phalanx Information
 Middle Phalanx Information
 Navicular Bone Information
 Distal Phalanx Information
Chapter Two Start
 Scapula
Forelimb
Overview: Humerus
Brachium,
Antebrachium and Radius and Ulna
Manus
Lateral View Carpus

Below the Carpus

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 Cranial Angle

Scapula

e
la g
Dorsal

rti
Border Lateral View
Ca
Su
la r pr
as
pi
pu
no
us
a
Sc

F os
sa

Caudal Infr
Angle aspi Sc Cranial
Scapula Border
Notch
nou
s Fo ap
ssa ul
aS
pi
ne Supraglenoid
tubercle

Caudal Border

Central Tuberosity of
the Scapula Spine
Glenoid Cavity

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 Scapula
Medial View rata
s Ser
Facie

F ossa
bs ca pular
Su

Corocoid Process

Glenoid Cavity Infraglenoid Tuberosity

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 Divided
Humerus
Head
Greater
Tubercle
Lateral View
Neck

Musculospiral Groove

Deltoid
tuberosity

Condyle

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 Humerus
Medial View
Lesser
Tubercle

Teres Major
Tubercle

Condyle

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 Humerus
Cranial View Intermediate
Tubercle

Cranial Portion of
Deltoid Greater Tubercle
Tuberosity

Double Intertubercular Groove

For Condyle
For Condyle
Click Here
Click Here

Lesser
Tubercle

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 Humerus
Caudal View
Head

For Condyle
For Condyle
Click Here
Click Here

Deltoid
Tuberosity Caudal Portion of
Greater Tubercle

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 Radius and Ulna
Lateral View Grooves for Extensor Muscles

Head
Anconeal Neck
Process Fovea

Radius

Lateral Styloid
a
Uolnn Note: The proximal and distal Process
eicmraaln Note:
parts Theulna
of the proximal andto
are fused distal
the
PO
rolx parts of the ulna are fused
radius. The lateral styloid processto the
isradius. Thedistal
the fused lateralportion
styloidof
process
the
is the The
ulna. fused distal
body of portion
the ulnaofis the
ulna. Theabsent.
body of the ulna is
Olecranon absent.
Process

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 Radius and Ulna
Medial View Head
Anconeal
Neck
Process
Fovea

Olec
ra n on
Medial Styloid
Process

Olecranon
Process

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 Radius and Ulna
Cranial View Grooves for Extensor Muscles

Olecranon

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 Radius and Ulna
Caudal View
Lateral Styloid
Process

Olecranon

Medial Styloid
Process

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 Cranial Radius Caudal
View and Ulna View
Radius
and Ulna Fused
Fused
Ulnar Carpal
Accessory
Carpal Bone Ulnar
Carpal

Intermediate Radial Carpal

Intermediate
Carpal
Carpal

2nd Carpal
4th Carpal
MC4 4th Carpal
MC2

3rd Carpal Metacarpal MC3 3rd Carpal

Three

Carpus
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 Ulnar
4th Carpal
Carpal
Accessory
Carpal Bone

3rd Intermediate Carpal

Carpal

Carpal
Bones
2nd Radial
Carpal
Carpal

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 Carpus
Manus Overview

Third
Metacarpal
Proximal Palmar
Sesamoids

Proximal Phalanx

Middle Phalanx

Navicular Bone
(Distal Sesamoid)

Distal Phalanx
(Coffin Bone)

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 Below the Carpus

Proximal Phalanx
Distal Phalanx
(P1/Long Pastern) (P3/Coffin Bone)

Third Metacarpal
Middle
(MC3/Cannon Bone) Hoof
Phalanx
Proximal Palmar (P2/Short Navicular Bone
Sesamoids Pastern) (Distal Sesamoid)

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 3rd Metacarpal

Cranial Metacarpal Region plus Splint Bones

View

MC3
Proximal

Distal
Lateral Splint
Bone Cannon Bone

MC4

MC3

MC2
Caudal Medial Splint Buttons Articulating surfaces for
View Bone Proximal Sesamoids

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 Proximal
MC3
Palmar
Sesamoids
Caudal View

Proximal
Phalanx

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 Also referred to as

Proximal Phalanx P1 or the Long

Pastern
Proximal

Cranial

Distal
Palmar
View View

Proximal Articulating Surface: V-shaped caudal

Distal surface Surface:
Articulating
to accommodate oblique
Articulates with MC3 (Cannon Bone) Articulatesligaments
sesamoidean with the Middle Phalanx

Resource Map Labels2

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 Also referred to as

Middle Phalanx P2 or the Short

Pastern

Cranial Palmar
Proximal

Distal
View View

Proximal Articulating Surface: SDF Insertion

Distal Articulating Surface:
Articulating surface
for the Navicular Bone
Articulates with Proximal Phalanx Articulates with the Distal Phalanx

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 Navicular Bone Also referred to as
the Distal Sesamoid

Dorsal Palmar
Caudal

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 Articulating
Distal
Also referred to as
P3 or the Coffin Surface for P2
Bone

Phalanx
Dorsal View

Hoof Cartilages
situated here

Extensor Process for the Parietal

Common Digital Extensor
Surface

Foramina associated
with blood vessels and
nerves Parietal Groove

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 Distal
Also referred to as Extensor Process for the
P3 or the Coffin Common Digital Extensor
Bone

Phalanx
Cranial View

Hoof Cartilages
situated here

Parietal
Surface

Foramina associated
with blood vessels and
nerves
Parietal Groove

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 Distal
Also referred to as
P3 or the Coffin
Bone

Phalanx Solar Foramina

Ventral View

Crest for Deep

Digital Flexor
Tendon (DDF)

Solar
Surface

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 Articulating
Distal
Also referred to as
P3 or the Coffin Surface for P2
Bone
Articulating Surfac
Phalanx for Navicular Bone

Caudal View

Grooves to Solar Foramina

Extensor Process for the

Common Digital Extensor Palmar Processes

Crest for Deep

Digital Flexor
Tendon (DDF)

Grooves to Solar Foramina

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 Hoof Periople

Dorsal View

Area of insensitive Lamina

Sole

Toe Wall Frog

Heel
Sole
Horse Shoe

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 Hoof Bulb of the Heel
Ventral View

Frog
Bar
Bar Paracuneal
Groove

Sole

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 Scapula
Information

• The equine scapula has no acromion process

• Due to the position of the scapular spine there is a
large infraspinous fossa
• There is a central tuberosity on the scapular spine
• Well developed supraglenoid tubercle and coracoid
process
• The supraglenoid tubercle is separate from the
glenoid cavity
• Extensive scapular cartilage when compared to other
species

Resource Map
 Humerus
Information

• The equine humerus is quite horizontal in

comparison to that of the dog and cat
• The greater tuberosity is split into a larger cranial
portion and a smaller caudal portion
• The musculospiral groove is relatively deep
• The deltoid tuberosity is large
• Well-developed epicondyles
• Unlike the dog/cat, the horse has no supratrochlear/
supracondylar foramen
• The Presence of an intermediate tubercle results in
the formation of a double inter-tubercular groove

Resource Map
 Condyle Lateral
Cranial View Epicondyle
Lateral
Epicondylar
Crest

Capitulum

Trochlear
Medial
Epicondylar
Crest
Radial Fossa
Medial
Epicondyle
Resource Map Labels
 Condyle
Caudal View

Note: The olecranon

Note:receives
fossa The olecranon
the
Olecranon anconeal processthe
fossa receives of
Fossa the ulna when the of
anconeal process
the ulnajoint
elbow whenis the
elbow joint is
extended
extended

Resource Map Labels

 Radius and Ulna
Information
• Prominent tuberosities on the radius allow for the
•insertion
The proximal quarter
of collateral of the radius
ligaments and theisbiceps
held tomuscle
the ulna by
ligaments, beyond this the two bones are fused
• Grooves for the extensor tendons are present on the
•cranial
The portion
distal third/half of the
of the distal ulna fails
extremity to form
of the apart from
radius
the lateral styloid process
• Fusion of the radius and ulna result in a lack of pronation
• The lateral styloid
or supination at thisprocess (fused distal
level (Unlike the dogextremity
and cat of the
where
ulna) will appear
the interosseus in foals
space allowsas afor
secondary ossification
a large amount centre
of pronation
and supination)
• There is a small interosseus space at the proximal
radio-ulnar notch through which blood vessels pass.
Beyond this the ulna is either fused with the radius or
fails to develop

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 Carpus
Information

• There is a two row arrangement

• The proximal row comprises of the ulnar carpal
bone, intermediate carpal bone, radial carpal bone and
the accessory carpal bone.
• The distal row comprises of the 4th carpal bone, 3rd
carpal bone and 2nd carpal bone. The 1st carpal bone is
generally absent, however, if present it will be very
small and easy to mistake for a fracture
• The accessory carpal bone articulates with both the
radius and the ulnar carpal bone

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 Metacarpal Region
Information
• The third metacarpal is the functional weight bearing
bone of this region. The second and fourth metacarpal bones
are also present in the form of splint bones
• MC3 articulates proximally with the carpal bones and
distally with the proximal sesamoids and proximal
phalanx
• Splint bones also articulate with the carpal bones but
taper to a point (known as the button) approximately two
thirds down MC3
• The buttons are a useful landmark for nerve blocks
• The junction between MC2 and MC3 is a common location
for splints. Splints are a typical ailment of the equine
forelimb
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 Proximal Phalanx
Information

• The proximal phalanx is often referred to

as P1 or the long pastern
• Collateral ligaments insert onto
palpable tubercles on P1’s surface
• The caudal surface is V-shaped to
accommodate the oblique sesamoidean
ligaments

Resource Map
 Middle Phalanx
Information

• The middle phalanx is often referred to as P2 or the

short pastern
• Approximately half of P2 is buried in the hoof
• Lateral hoof cartilages lie on both the medial and
lateral sides of P2
• The superficial digital flexor tendon (SDF) inserts on
the proximal edge of P2
• P2 articulates with both the distal phalanx and the
Navicular bone

Resource Map
 Navicular Bone
Information
• An unpaired boat-shaped bone that articulates with both
P2 and P3
• The deep digital flexor tendon runs over its palmar
surface
NAVICULAR DISEASE
• Navicular disease is a complex condition with a wide
variety of suspected causes
• Ultimately it is a long term degenerative condition of both
the navicular bone and bursa
• It is the most common causes of long term forelimb
lameness

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 Distal Phalanx
Information
• The distal phalanx is also known as P3 or the coffin bone,
it articulates with P2 and the navicular bone to form the
coffin joint
LAMINITIS
• Laminitis involves inflammation of the sensitive lamina that
secure the bones of the distal limb extremity to the hoof wall
• This inflammation leads to separation of the sensitive lamina
from the interdigitating insensitive lamina
• The distal phalanx will then rotate due to the pull of the deep
digital flexor. The tip of the distal phalanx will eventually
penetrate the soft horn of the sole

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 Hoof Information

• The hoof covers and protects the distal extremity of the digit
• The hoof is formed from keratinized epithelium secreted by the modified
dermis covering the distal extremity of the digit
• Expansion of the hoof dissipates pressure helping to prevent concussive
damage on impact
• The join between skin and hoof is called the coronet
• The sole of the hoof lies between the wall and the frog
• The white line is the junction between the sole and the wall of the hoof,
shoe nails are driven into the outer edge of this line
• The concave surface means that only the frog and wall make contact with
the ground
• The frog is a wedge-shaped projection into the sole, with its base set
between the two heels. The caudal end of the frog extends over the heel and
is known as the heel bulb, and the groove between the frog, bar and the sole
is called the paracuneal groove

Resource Map
 Resource Map: Chapter Two

 Joints of the Forelimb Overview

 Shoulder Joint
 Elbow Joint
 Carpal Joints
 Fetlock Joint  Information Slides
 Ligaments of the Fetlock/Pastern  Shoulder Joint Information
Joints  Elbow Joint Information
 Coffin Joint  Carpal Joint Information
 Annular Ligaments  Fetlock Joint Information
 Pastern Joint Information
 Coffin Joint Information
 Annular Ligaments Information

Chapter One Start

 Shoulder Joint
Joints of the
Forelimb Elbow Joint
Overview
Lateral View

Carpal Joints

Fetlock Joint
Pastern Joint
Coffin Joint

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 Shoulder Supraspinatus

Joint Supraglenoid
Cranial View tubercle

Aponeurosis of Deep
Transverse Humeral Ligament

Pectoral
Lateral Medial

Lesser
Greater Tuberosity Tuberosity
Biceps Brachii
(Cranial Part)

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 Humerus
Anconeus Olecranon

These lines highlight the

inconsistant radius which
results in an unequal
curvature to the condyle

Rotational
Axis

Biceps Brachii
Eccentrically Placed
Collateral Ligament
Caudal

Br
a ch Elbow Joint
a
ia Uln
lis
Medial View
Cranial
Radius

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 Lateral Palmar
View View
Carpal
Canal

Lateral
Collateral
Ligament

Radiocarpal

Flexor
Intercarpal Retinaculum

Accessory
Carpal
Carpometacarpal Palmar
Ligament Carpal/Capsu
lar Ligament

Carpal
Joints
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 Triangular Collateral
Ligaments hold the sesamoids
to metacarpal three and P1

Inter-sesamoidean Ligament
and Thick Palmar Ligament

Proximal Extension of the Palmar

Ligament of the sesamoids

Collateral Sesamoidean
Ligament

Lateral Collateral
Ligament

Fetlock
Joint
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 Suspensory Ligament
Inter-sesamoidean Ligament (Homologous to the interosseus
and Thick Palmar Ligament muscle of other species)

Collateral Sesamoidean Oblique Sesamoidean

Ligaments Ligaments

Straight Sesamoidean
Ligament Axial Palmar Ligaments
of the Pastern Joint

Fibrocartilage of P2
Abaxial Palmar Ligament
of the Pastern Joint

Ligaments of
the Area of Insertion for the
Fetlock/Pastern Superficial Digital Flexor
Tendon
Joints

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Collateral Navicular
Ligaments

Distal Navicular
Ligament

Coffin
Joint
Resource Map Labels Previous Next
 Annular
Ligaments

Palmar Annular
Ligament

Proximal Digital
Annular Ligament

Distal Digital Annular

Ligament

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 Shoulder Joint
Information

• Although a ball and socket joint, the shoulder actually

functions more like a hinge joint
• The tendons of supraspinatus and infraspinatus act as
collateral ligaments supporting the joint
• Supraspinatus tendon splits forming attachments with the
lesser tuberosity and the cranial portion of the greater
tuberosity.
• Biceps brachii originates from the supraglenoid tubercle
by way of a grooved cartilaginous tendon. This tendon is
supported by the intertubercular bursa (biceps bursa)
• Bursa and tendon are held in place by the transverse
humeral ligament and then overlaid with the aponeurosis of
the deep pectoral muscle

Resource Map
 Elbow Joint
Information

• Typically described as a “snap” joint, where while

standing the joint is very stable but on flexion becomes
more movable.
• This is due to two specific anatomical features:
• The humeral condyles have unequal curvature,
this means the radius of the central portion is
greater than the radius of the cranial and caudal
parts (highlighted in previous slide)
• The medial and lateral collateral ligaments
have eccentric insertions on the humerus

Resource Map
 Carpal Joint
Information

•• A common outer fibrous capsule surrounds the

As a compound joint, the carpal joint comprises of:
overall joint and each individual joint is surrounded by
• The radiocarpal
an inner synovial pouch (antebrachiocarpal) joint,
which is between the radius and the proximal
• Collateral ligaments are present on the medial and
carpal bones. The majority of the movement
lateral surfaces
occurs here extending from the radius to the
metacarpals
• The intercarpal (middle carpal) joint, which is
• The carpal canal is occupied by the superficial and
between the two rows of carpal bones
deep digital flexor tendons surrounded by a common
• The carpometacarpal joint between the distal
synovial sheath
carpal bones and the metacarpals. Here
• The accessory carpal ligament, palmar carpal
movement is minimal
ligament and flexor retinaculum all oppose over
extension of the carpus

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 Fetlock Joint
Information

• The joint between metacarpal three, the proximal phalanx and

the proximal palmar sesamoids
• The main ligaments of this joint are shown on the previous
slide
• Of particular importance is the proximal extension of the thick
palmar ligament. This approximately 2cm enlargement serves
a number of functions
• Increases the bearing surface for the flexor tendons
• Supports the flexor tendons during over extension of
the fetlock
• Prevents bone to bone contact during flexion of the
fetlock when the sesamoids move up along the condyles of
MC3

Resource Map
 Pastern Joint
Information

• The joint between the long pastern (P1) and the short
pastern (P2)
• This particular joint has fairly restricted movement
• Paired axial and paired abaxial palmar ligaments
extend from P1 to the fibrocartilage of P2
• These ligaments oppose over extension of the joint,
the straight sesamoidean ligament also aids this

Resource Map
 Coffin Joint
Information

• The coffin joint involves P2, P3 and the

navicular bone
• There is very little movement at this joint
• The collateral ligaments between P2 and P3
are short and thick
• The navicular bone is held in place by
collateral navicular ligaments, a proximal
navicular ligament and a distal navicular
ligament

Resource Map
 Annular Ligaments
Information

• The annular ligaments hold the flexor tendons in place

• They are formed from localized thickened fascia

• The palmar annular ligament attaches the abaxial

borders of the sesamoids to the superficial digital flexor
tendons
• The proximal digital annular ligament is X-shaped
when seen in a palmar view
• The distal digital annular ligament is U-shaped when
seen in a palmar view. It arises from the proximal phalanx
and covers the collateral navicular ligament. It also
separates the deep digital flexor tendon from the digital
cushion

Resource Map