Steady State Flow

Flow of water through soil

There are 2 main issues

• Quantity of water flowing

• Pore water pressures

Flow through a Dam

Unsaturated
Soil

Flow of water
Soil behaviour is governed by Effective Stress

 xx   xx  u w ;  yz   yz
 yy   yy  u w ;  zx   zx
 zz   zz  u w ;  xy   xy

When water flows pore water pressures change.

This can be important when considering stability of retaining

walls, earth dams, and other soil constructions
Definition of Head at a Point
u w ( P)
h ( P)   z( P ) (1)
w

Note
z(P)
z is measured vertically up
from the datum

Datum
 Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

2m
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

2m u w ( P)  4 w
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

2m u w ( P)  4 w
1m X z( P)  1
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
1. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

2m u w ( P)  4 w
1m X z( P)  1
5 m thus
P 4 w
1m
h( P)   1  5m
Impermeable stratum w
 Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

u w ( X)  w
2m
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

u w ( X)  w
2m
1m X z ( X)  4
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

u w ( X)  w
2m
1m X z ( X)  4
5 m thus
P
1m
w
h ( X)   4  5m
Impermeable stratum w
 Example: Static water table
2. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the top of the impermeable layer

u w ( X)  w
2m
1m X z ( X)  4
5 m thus
P
1m
w
h ( X)   4  5m
Impermeable stratum w

The heads at P and X are identical does this imply that the head
is constant throughout the region below a static water table?
 Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the water table

2m
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( P) = 4 w
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( P) = 4 w
1m X z( P) = -4
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
3. Calculation of head at P

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( P) = 4 w
1m X z( P) = -4
5m thus
P
1m 4 w
Impermeable stratum h( P) = - 4 = 0m
w
 Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( X)  1 w
1m X
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( X)  1 w
1m X z ( X)  1
5m
P
1m
Impermeable stratum
 Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( X)  1 w
1m X z ( X)  1
5m thus
P
1m w
Impermeable stratum
h ( X)   1  0m
w
 Example: Static water table
4. Calculation of head at X

Choose datum at the water table

2m u w ( X)  1 w
1m X z ( X)  1
5m thus
P
1m w
Impermeable stratum
h ( X)   1  0m
w

Again, the head at P and X is identical, but the value is different

 Head
• The value of the head depends on the choice of datum
 Head
• The value of the head depends on the choice of datum
• Differences in head are required for flow (not pressure)
 Head
• The value of the head depends on the choice of datum
• Differences in head are required for flow (not pressure)

2m It can be helpful to consider

imaginary standpipes
1m X
placed in the soil at the
5m points where the head is
P
1m required
Impermeable stratum
 Head
• The value of the head depends on the choice of datum
• Differences in head are required for flow (not pressure)

2m It can be helpful to consider

imaginary standpipes
1m X
placed in the soil at the
5m points where the head is
P
1m required
Impermeable stratum

The head is the elevation of the water level in the

standpipe above the datum
 Water flow through soil

h

Soil Sample

Darcy found that the flow (volume per unit time) was

• proportional to the head difference h

• proportional to the cross-sectional area A

• inversely proportional to the length of sample L

 Darcy’s Law

h
Thus Q  kA (2a)
L
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic
conductivity.
 Darcy’s Law

h
Thus Q  kA (2a)
L
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic
conductivity.

Equation (2a) may be written as

 Darcy’s Law

h
Thus Q  kA (2a)
L
where k is the coefficient of permeability or hydraulic
conductivity.

Equation (2a) may be written as

or v=ki (2b)

where i = h/L the hydraulic gradient

v = Q/A the Darcy or superficial velocity
 Measurement of permeability
inlet
constant head
device
load

H
Manometers
outlet

device for flow sample L

measurement
porous disk

Fig. 4 Constant Head Permeameter

 Constant head permeameter
The volume discharge X during a suitable time interval
T is collected.
The difference in head H over a length L is measured by
means of manometers.
Knowing the cross-sectional area A, Darcy’s law gives
 Constant head permeameter
The volume discharge X during a suitable time interval
T is collected.
The difference in head H over a length L is measured by
means of manometers.
Knowing the cross-sectional area A, Darcy’s law gives

It can be seen that in a constant head permeameter::

(3)
 Measurement of permeability
Standpipe of
cross-sectional
area a

porous disk
H1
H
Sample H2
L of area A

Fig. 5 Falling Head Permeameter

 Falling head permeameter
Standpipe
Analysis of area
Consider a time interval t a

The flow in the standpipe =

H1
H
Sample H2
L of area
A
 Falling head permeameter
Standpipe
Analysis of area
Consider a time interval t a

The flow in the standpipe =

H1
The flow in the sample = H
Sample H2
L of area
A
 Falling head permeameter
Standpipe
Analysis of area
Consider a time interval t a

The flow in the standpipe =

H1
The flow in the sample = H
Sample H2
and thus L of area
A
(4a)
 Falling head permeameter
Solution Standpipe
of area
dH H
a  kA (4a) a
dt L

Equation (4a) has the solution:

H1
kA H
an( H )  t  cons tan t (4b)
L H2
Sample
L of area
A
 Falling head permeameter
Solution Standpipe
of area
dH H
a  kA (4a) a
dt L

Equation (4a) has the solution:

H1
kA H
an( H )  t  cons tan t (4b)
L H2
Sample
L of area
Initially H=H1 at time t=t1 A
Finally H=H2 at time t=t2.

aL n( H1 / H 2 )
k (4c)
A t 2  t1
 Typical permeability values

10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11 10-12

Gravels Sands Silts Homogeneous Clays

Fissured & Weathered Clays

Typical Permeability Ranges (metres/second)

Soils exhibit a wide range of permeabilities and while particle

size may vary by about 3-4 orders of magnitude permeability
may vary by about 10 orders of magnitude.
 Definition of Hydraulic Gradients

For horizontal flow v=vx

z
and k=kH and thus

A vx  k Hix
where
z
h ( C )  h ( B)
B C ix  (5a)
x
x and thus
O x h
vx  kH
x
 Definition of Hydraulic Gradients

For vertical flow v=vz

z
and k=kV and thus

z
B C
x
O x (5b)
 Fig. 8 Plane Flow under a Dam
Cross section of a long dam
(flow in the y direction is negligible)

Dam

Soil
Flow
x

Impermeable bedrock
 vz Fig. 9 Flow into
a soil element
C

vx D Soil B z
Element
A
x
 vz Fig. 9 Flow into
a soil element
C

vx D Soil B z
Element
A
x
 Continuity Equation
 v x v z
Continuity Equation   0 (6b)
x z
 Continuity Equation
 v x v z
Continuity Equation   0 (6b)
x z

+ Darcy's Law
+
h
vx  k H
x
Darcy’s Law h (5)
vz  k V
z
 Continuity Equation
 v x v z
Continuity Equation   0 (6b)
x z

+ Darcy's Law
+
h
vx  k H
x
Darcy’s Law h (5)
vz  k V
z

 h  h
Flow equation ( k H )  ( k V )  0 (7b)
x x  z z
  h  h
Flow equation (k H )  (k V )  0 (7b)
x  x z z
  h  h
Flow equation (k H )  (k V )  0 (7b)
x  x z z

2 2
 h  h
For a homogeneous soil kH 2  kV 2  0 (7c)
x z
  h  h
Flow equation (k H )  (k V )  0 (7b)
x  x z z

2 2
 h  h
For a homogeneous soil kH 2  kV 2  0 (7c)
x z

2 2
 h  h
For an isotropic soil
2
 2 0 (7d)
x z