OCTOBER 2007

THE AFRICAN BRAIN DRAIN: USING

INTELLECTUAL DIASPORA TO
MANAGE THE DRAIN: WHAT ARE
THE OPTIONS?

PRESENTATION TO THE ASSOCIATION OF

AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES (AAU),
CONFERENCE OF RECTORS, VICE CHANCELLORS
AND PRESIDENTS OF AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES
(COREVIP)

By
Dr. Patrick Onsando Ph.D
Moi University
Eldoret Kenya
 Abstract

 There is an increasing realization that the next society will be a knowledge society,
enabled by the rapidly developing information and communications technology.
 This is despite the fact that the brain drain has brought harmful effects to Africa as
some of her best talents have emigrated resulting into lower rates of growth, less
productive educational investments and poorer health care.
 The endogenous growth model provides evidence on these effects.
 There has also been a loss of actual and potential innovators who might have led the
way to modernization, as they migrated to educational systems and working
environments that have supported their innovative and creative abilities.
 This study shows that in order to exploit its full potential, Africa will have to depend
increasingly on the acquisition, creation and use of knowledge.
 However having the storehouse of treasure in the form of knowledge workers is not
enough. In order to carry out those functions well, and be on the cutting edge, Africa
needs an effective innovation system, linking up with, “innovation friendly”
enterprises the various research units, universities, consultants, and other
organizations that are able to access the growing stock of global knowledge and
create new knowledge and new technologies.
 We conclude that, the intellectual Diaspora may constitute a key resource for Africa,
by providing contacts of many types, contributing know-how and investments and
enhancing international trade and creation of wealth.
CONTEXT
 Because of low training capacity, a large proportion of Africans are still
trained outside Africa, exposing them to the challenge of the Brain drain.
 Millions of Africa Science and technology experts are stuck in western
countries as part of this brain drain.
 According to the International Organization for Migration (IOM), Africa has
already lost one third of its human capital and is continuing to lose its skilled
personnel at an increasing rate, with an estimated 20,000 doctors, university
lecturers, engineers and other professional leaving the continent annually since
1990.
 There are currently over 300,000 highly qualified Africans in the Diaspora,
30,000 of which have PhDs.
 Africa spends US$4 billion per year (representing 35% of total official
development aid to the continent) to employ some 100,000 Western experts
performing functions generically described as technical assistance.
 Africa as a whole counts only 20,000 scientists (3.6% percent of the world
total) and its share in the world’s scientific output has fallen from 0.5% to
0.3% as it continues to suffer the brain drain of scientists, engineers and
technologists.
 CONTEXT
Continuation
 The problem of brain drain has reached quite disturbing proportions in certain African countries,
with Ethiopia ranked first in the continent in terms of rate of loss of human capital, followed by
Nigeria and Ghana.
 Ethiopia lost about 74.6% of its human capital from various institutions between 1980 and 1991.
 While Ethiopia has 1 full-time economics professor, there are more than 100 Ethiopian economists
in the United States.
 According to the estimates of the Presidential Committee on Brain Drain set up in 1988 by the
Babangida administration, Nigeria, between 1986 and 1990, lost over 10,000 academics from
tertiary education institutions alone.
 Total estimates, including those who left public, industrial and private organizations, are over
30,000. 64% of Nigerians in the United States aged 25 and older have at least a bachelor’s degree.
 The Zimbabwe National Association of Social Workers estimates that 1,500 of the country’s 3,000
trained social workers left for the United Kingdom over the past 10 years.
 African countries are funding the education of their nationals only to see them end up contributing to
the growth of developed countries with little or no return on their investment.
 In Kenya, for example, it costs about US$40,000 to train a doctor and US$10,000-15,000 to educate
a university student for 4 years.
 The health sector is particularly affected; indeed, desperate shortage of health professionals is the
most serious obstacle as Africa tries to fight AIDS and support other health programs.
 Kenya loses on average 20 medical doctors each month.
 Ghana lost 60% of its medical doctors in the 1980s, 600 to 700 Ghanaian physicians are currently
practicing in the USA alone, a figure that represents roughly 50% of the total population of doctors
in Ghana.
 CONTEXT
Continuation
 The loss of nurses, in particular, is growing phenomenon, fueled principally by the
shortages in developed countries.
 The United States has 126,000 fewer nurses that it needs and government figures show that
the country could face a shortage of 800,000 registered nurses by 2020.
 Because of such shortages, industrialized nations have embarked on massive international
recruitment drives, offering African nurses the opportunity to earn as much as 20 times
their salaries.
 The 1993 UNDP Human Development Report indicated that more than 21,000 Nigerian
doctors were practicing in the United States alone while Nigeria suffers from a shortage of
doctors.
 If we were to add the number of Nigerian doctors in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states,
Europe, Australia and those in other African countries, the figure would be close to 30,000.
 One third of Ethiopian medical doctors have already left the country.
 In Zambia, the public sector only retains about 50 out of 600 doctors trained in the
country’s medical school.
 The flight of health professionals is not limited to doctors and affects nurses, pharmacists
and social services personnel as well.
 It is not only the medics that are affected it is the entire spectrum of professionals.
 African is thus fascinated with how it can utilize the African Diaspora to improve the lot of
Africa.
 CONTEXT
Continuation
 To acquire the scientific knowledge and technology required for a technological regime,
Africa will have to strengthen its capacity to use wisely a mix of channels, including,
copying, imitating, duplicating, intelligence gathering, resource engineering, licensing,
FDI, partnering networking with the Diaspora, overseas studies, technical assistance and
international and regional cooperation.
 Africa may adapt innovation systems based on a “catch-up” model which favors the
acquisition of advanced technologies from abroad in selected sectors rather than a
broader strengthening of its knowledge base.
 However, reliance on foreign technology results in heavy dependence on foreign sources
of materials, parts and components. This limits the beneficial “linkage effects” and
amplifies vulnerability to external shocks.
 Endogenous Growth Model and the
Brain Drain
 Endogenous innovation models embrace a neo-Schumpeterian framework of endogenous
technological change based on three premises (Gross man and Helpman, 1991, 1994: Crafts,
1996: Aghion and Howitt, 1998).
 First, the basic driving force behind economic growth is technological change, that is
improvement in knowledge about how we transform inputs into outputs in the production
process.
 Second, technological change is endogenous, being determined by deliberate activities of
economic agents acting largely in response to financial incentives.
 Third, the defining characteristic of ideas/knowledge is that once the cost of creating a new
set of instructions has been incurred, the instructions can be used over and over again at no
additional cost (Romer 1990). Therefore ideas are non-rivalries outputs and their use by one
firm or person does not in any way reduce their availability to other firms or persons.
 The “new growth” literature therefore suggests that, the negative implications of a brain
drain on the source country are magnified. For example, Hague and Kim (1995) posits that
the emigration of people with high levels of human capital reduces the growth rate of the
effective human capital that remains in the economy, and thus generates the reduction of the
per capita growth in the source country.
 Under this scenario not only is high – skilled labour complementary with capital and low-
skilled labour, but high-skilled workers enhance technological innovations and their
diffusion.
 The main implication is that a continuous outflow of high – skilled labour would deplete the
source country’s level of human capital and thus reduce the capacity of the country to
achieve as much technological progress as other economies.
 Endogenous Growth Model and the
Brain Drain
Continuation
 Scenarios from the standard model of production and endogenous growth models reflect the
“drain of brains” view that dominated migration research from the 1950s to the 1970s.
 However, these, two scenarios ignore the fact that migration can induce skill formation.
 The standard and new growth models have been challenged in various theoretical papers
that examine the impact of migration on human capital formation within a context of
rational migration flows (see Beine et al. 2001, and mount fold 1997).
 The theory assumes that workers weigh the costs of acquiring skills against prospective
market rewards for enhancing skills, both at home and abroad and thus making optimal
decisions.
 Scherer (1999) advocates that human capital is the most important input in the process of
advancing technology.
 A growing body of literature has addressed the complementarities of human capital and
technological progress.
 One of the earliest models developed is by Nelson and Phelps (1966), which suggested
what the level of education, speeds up technological diffusion.
 Their simple illustration was that of an educated farmer, possessing ability to discern
profitable ideas and thus adopting new processes or products more quickly than his
uneducated counterpart.
 Benhabib and Spiegel (2002), using cross data obtains results consistent to Nelson and
Phelps hypothesis and extends the role of human capital to be an engine of domestic
innovation besides being a facilitator of technology adoption.
 Endogenous Growth Model and the
Brain Drain
Continuation
 Romer (1990) challenges and augments the Solow neoclassical growth model, which assumes
technology to be exogenous and hence available without limitation everywhere across the globe.
 In order to explain continuous growth of output per worker in the long run the Solow model must
incorporate the influence of sustainable technological progress.

Y = At KαL1-α (1)
 Where ɑ and 1-ɑ are weights reflecting the share of capital and labour in the national income.
Assuming constant returns to scale, and for a given technology, At 0, output per worker is positively
related to the capital-labour ratio (K/L). We can therefore rewrite the production function equation
(1) in terms of output per worker as shown by
 Y/L = A(t0)(K/L)=A(t0)KαL1-α/L=A(t0)(K/L)α (2)
 Letting y = Y/L and k = K/L, we have the “intensive form” of the aggregate production.
 y=A(t0)kα (3)
 For a given technology, equation (3) tells us that increasing the amount of capital per worker (capital
deepening) will lead to an increase in output per worker.
 Endogenous Growth Model and the
Brain Drain
Continuation
y = Y/L A(t1)kα

Fig 1. Technological
progress
yb
A(t0)kα

ya

ka k = K/L
The impact of exogenous technological progress is illustrated in figure 1 by a shift of the production
function between two time periods (t0 =>t1) from A(t0)kα to A(t1)kα, raising output per worker from ya to
yb for a given capital-labour ratio of ka. Continuous upward shifts of the production function, induced by
an exogenously determined growth of knowledge, provide the only mechanism for ‘explaining’ steady state
growth of output per worker in the neoclassical model.
 Endogenous Growth Model and the
Brain Drain
Continuation
 Continuous upward shifts of the production function, induced by an exogenous
determined a growth of knowledge, provides the only mechanism for “explaining”
steady growth of output per worker in the neoclassical model.
 Insights on the impacts of technology on production are also provided by (Kumar and
Rusell) decomposition.
 This decomposition exploits the assumption of constant returns to scale, in which case
the benchmark technology sets can be drawn in <k, y> space, where k = K/L and y =
Y/L.
 Using these hypothetical technologies for two periods, as we have already shown, say a
base period b and a current period c, are drawn in figure 2. In this example, the single
kink in each of the polyhedral technologies would indicate that a single economy the
only efficient economy defines the frontier.
 The two points (kb, yb) and (kc, yc), represent observed values of the two ratios in the
two periods for some hypothetical economy.
Endogenous Growth Model and the
Brain Drain
y

Yc(kc)
D
Yc T

Yc(kb) E

C
Yb(kc)
Yb(kb B

yb A

kb kc k

 By construction, potential outputs for this economy in the two periods are ȳb(kb) = yb/eb
and ȳc(kc) = yc /ec, where eb and ec are the values of the efficiency indexes in the two
periods, calculated as in (2) above.
 Endogenous Growth Model and the
Brain Drain
Continuation
yc ec  yc (kc )
. Therefore, 
yb eb  b(kb)

Multiplying top and bottom by ȳb(kc), the potential output-labor ratio at current-period capital
intensity using the base-period technology, we obtain
yc ec yc (kc ) yb (kc )
  
yb eb yb (kc ) yb (kb)

This identity decomposes the relative change in the output-labor ratio in the two
periods into (i) the change in efficiency – i.e., the change in the distance from the
frontier (the first term on the right); (ii) the technology change – i.e., the shift in
the frontier (the second term; and (iii) the effect of the change in the capital-labor
ratio-i.e., movement along the frontier (the third term).
 Endogenous Growth Model and the
Brain Drain
Continuation
The decomposition in (4) measures technological change by the shift in the frontier in
the output direction at the current-period capital-labor ratio-from point C to point D in
Figure 2 and it measures the effect of capital accumulation along the base-period
frontier-from point B to point C. we can alternatively measure technological change at
the base-period capital-labor ratio-from point B to point E in Figure 2 -and capital
accumulation by movements along the current-period frontier-from point E to point D-
by multiplying the top and bottom of (3) by the potential output-labor ratio at base-
period capital intensity using the current-period technology, ȳc(kb), yielding the
decomposition,

yc ec yc (kb ) yc(kc )
   (5)
yb eb yb(kb ) yc (kb)
 Endogenous Growth Model and the
Brain Drain
Continuation
 Thus, the decomposition of (discrete) productivity changes (not attributable to
efficiency changes) into the technological-change and capital-deepening
components is path dependent, and the choice between (4) and (5) is arbitrary.
 There is no avoiding this arbitrariness, unless technological change is Hicks
neutral, in which case the proportional vertical shift in the frontier is
independent of the value of the capital-labor ratio.
 It is this assumption (along with constant returns to scale) that enabled Solow
(1957), and the legions of growth accountants who have followed his lead, to
unambiguously decompose productivity growth into components attributable
to technological change and capital deepening.
 But without constraining technological change to be Hicks neutral, the
proportional (vertical) shift in the frontier varies in unspecified ways.
 In fact, this arbitrariness is not, per se, attributable to the decomposition itself.
 It is endemic to the basic task of measuring technological change, as is
evident in the necessity of normalizing on one of two technologies in the
(Malmquist) productivity index proposed in the pioneering paper of Doughlas
W. Caves et al. (1982a).
 Endogenous Growth Model and the
Brain Drain
Continuation
 Within this framework it is inferred that technological innovation is a chronic
disturber of comparatives and the rules of the game are rapidly changing.
 The emerging trends have far – reaching implications for Africa’s sustainable
development and competitiveness.
 Global firms are steadily upgrading their technological capacity and
performance and progressively raising entry barriers to new entrants.
 In this process inefficient producers such as African ones, are often squeezed
out.
 Africa’s competitiveness in its traditional areas of comparative advantage is
eroding.
 This is well documented; The continent’s share of global export trade fell from
5.9% in 1980 to less than 2% at the end of the 1990s, while sub-Saharan
Africa’s market share at global manufacturing value added (MVA) was halved
from 0.69% in 1970 to a low 0.3% in he 1990s.
 Globalization and liberalization compel companies to compete not only in
foreign markets in order to prosper, but also in their own national markets.
 Africa, therefore, needs to act promptly to counter the possibilities of this
double internal and external squeeze.
Causes and Impacts of Brain Drain

CAUSES

 Push factors

 Pull factors
 Causes and Impacts of Brain Drain

Continuation
PUSH FACTORS
Focus on those pay, working conditions and broader management and
governance factors that encourage professionals to exit their own
systems and leave their country.
 Low and eroding wages and salaries
 Unsatisfactory living conditions, lack of transport, housing, etc
 Under-utilization of qualified personnel; lack of satisfactory working
conditions; low prospect of professional development
 Lack of research and other facilities, including support staff; inadequacy of
research funds, lack of professional equipment and tools
 Social unrest, Political conflicts and wars
 Declining quality of educational system
 Discrimination in appointments and promotions
 Lack of freedom
 Causes and Impacts of Brain Drain

Continuation
PULL FACTORS
Direct attention to the factors that encourage professionals to move to
other countries, including shortages and active recruitment from high
income countries.
 Higher wages and income
 Higher standard of living
 Better working conditions; job and career opportunities and professional
development
 Substantial funds for research, advanced technology, modern facilities;
availability of experienced support staff
 Political stability
 Modern educational system; prestige of ‘foreign training’
 Meritocracy, transparency
 Intellectual freedom
 Causes and Impacts of Brain Drain

IMPACTS
 The “brain drain” crises can also be seen as a process that Africa can theoretically
capitalize on.
 Virtually all of Africa’s major export sectors are struggling to compete on world
markets, yet without any policy effort whatsoever Africa has demonstrated its
competitiveness in the training (or “production”) of doctors and nurses.
 Such exports allow Africa to bypass the formal trade facilitation challenges (from the
world trade organization) that so hamper exports.
 The mobility of highly skilled labour is associated with a number of positive feed back
effects as skilled emigrants continue to affect the economy of their origin country.
 The main benefits are associated with the remittance of income, the knowledge and skills
acquired by returnees, and spillover effects when migration increases the urge to obtain
higher education, increasing the stock of education in the source country, with only a
proportional of this accumulation of skills “lost” to out-migration (see mountfold 1997).
 An illustration of these spill-over effects is the degree in which the educational level of
applicants in nursing schools in Ghana has risen to the equivalent entrance level and the
number of applicants has also risen sharply, as applicants start to view a nursing
qualification as an investment in leaving the country (Mensah et al. 2005:19).
 Managing the ‘Drain’.What are the
options?
Continuation
 The brain drain has brought harmful effects to many countries as some of their
best talents have emigrated.
 Some of the consequences have been lower rates of growth, less productive
educational investments and poorer health care.
 There has also been a loss of actual and potential innovators who might have led
the way to modernization, as they migrated to educational systems and working
environments that better supported their innovative and creative abilities.
 The conception about the migration of skills is now evolving, putting stronger
emphasis on brain gain, which is based on the idea that the expatriate skilled
population may be considered as a potential asset instead of a definite loss.
 There are two main options to implement the brain gain either through the return
of the expatriates to the country of origin (return option) or through their remote
mobilization and association to its development (diaspora option) .
 The return option has been successfully realized in various new industrialized
countries (NICs) such as Singapore and the republic of Korea or big developing
countries such as France and China (Charum, Meyes eds, 1999).
 Strong programmes to repatriate many of their skilled nationals abroad have been
put in place since 1980.
 Managing the ‘Drain’.What are the
options?
Continuation
 The experience of the Asian countries like the republic of Korea, Singapore
and Taiwan, can provide very useful lessons from which African countries can
learn from.
 These nations did set up incentive schemes and mechanisms within a benign
socio-economic framework that helped to attract back home quite a lot of their
own highly trained expatriate people from the various industrialized countries
who helped to fuel the revival of agriculture, commerce, higher education and
hi-tech research within these nations and to transform them into the so called
newly industrializing countries (MICS).
 However, the IOM highlights difficulties of facilitating return in relation to
African professionals abroad.
 The challenges highlighted include prolonged job search arising from
cumbersome processes, lack of trust in African government amongst the
diaspora, and weak government ownership. (IOM cited in WHO/World Bank).
 Managing the ‘Drain’.What are the
options?
Continuation
 The diaspora option is based on network approaches where a network can be defined as
a regular set of contacts or similar connections among individual actors or groups
(Granoveltes and Suedberg; 1922:9).
 These networks of highly skilled expatriates are referred to as expatriate knowledge
networks.
 The main feature of the diaspora option is that it tries to set up connections/linkages
between highly skilled expatriates and between them and the country of origin.
 This allows for information and knowledge exchange between expatriates and between
them and the country of origin.
 It allows expatriates the opportunity to transfer their expertise and skills to the country
of origin without necessarily returning home permanently.
 In this way the country of origin has access to the knowledge and expertise of the
expatriate, but also the knowledge networks that he/she forms part of in the host country.
 A crucial element of the diaspora option is therefore an effective system of information
to facilitate transfer and exchange of information between network members and
between them and their counterparts in the country of origin.
 Intellectual diaspora members therefore can enable and promote collaboration with
African people, institutions and enterprises
 Managing the ‘Drain’.What are the
options?
Continuation

 However Diaspora Option requires good organizations of networks to ensure

communication information – exchange and coordinated actions.
 This is where an interface or coordinating body becomes necessary.
 The function of such a coordinating body would be to collect, organize and maintain the
information needed for the systematic search of partnerships, but also o manage and
promote the interests and actions of the multiple entities in a network of this kind.
 Diaspora option is based on information transfer, and studies have shown that, the next
society will be a knowledge society, enabled by the rapidly developing information and
communications technology. According to Peter Drucker, it will have highly competitive
characteristics and will use knowledge as a key resource.
 Knowledge has become the most important factor for international competitiveness, the
creation of wealth and the improvement of living conditions.
 The knowledge society will rely heavily on knowledge workers, both traditional
professionals like doctors, scientists and engineers, and also "knowledge technologists"
such as IT technicians, lab analysts and manufacturing experts, who need a basis of
theoretical knowledge acquired through formal education.
 Managing the ‘Drain’.What are the
options?
Continuation
 Innovation, a knowledge-intensive endeavor, requires creative people to put knowledge
to work. It also needs a favorable environment.
 A culture of innovation has indeed become a prerequisite of development in the 21st
century.
 "To understand people’s ability to innovate and their ability to adapt to change",
says a recent report from UNESCO, "one has to take into account the social and cultural
components of innovation, our environment - including our belief and value systems -
shapes the way we view the world around us and determines how we react to ongoing
change.
 Technological change has often-overlooked social effect or consequence; namely, it
alters social hierarchies and the power structure of groups within society and in some
cases society itself.
 In order to understand people’s ability to innovate and their ability to adapt to change,
one has to take into account the social and cultural components of innovation.
 In the end, these ‘factors are the tools that enable us to create a culture of innovation".
 The experience of many countries has clearly shown that the loss of high level people
cannot be stemmed successfully by restricting mobility, but rather by a favorable
political and economic climate together with better work facilities, adequate pay and
advancement through merit.
 This helps retain exceptional talents within the country and utilize them for the country’s
benefit. It may also help to bring back some of those who had previously emigrated.
 Managing the ‘Drain’.What are the
options?
Continuation
 Members of the intellectual Diaspora may be induced to participate actively in new,
innovative productive ventures in the home country.
 Emigrants that have accumulated abundant capital, developed novel technologies, and
generated successful enterprises may be willing to create new ventures at home on the
basis of such resources, often in association with a local partner, if there is true support
for these efforts.
 A promotional mechanism and adequate incentives may help here, such as has happened
in Korea, Taiwan and China, where the respective governments have catalyzed and
nurtured such initiatives.
 Several "brain exporting" countries have become aware of these potential benefits, and
are attempting to organize their intellectual Diasporas so as to better utilize their high
level nationals abroad.
 This requires a significant effort to survey the Diaspora’s human resources, create an
active network, and develop specific activities and programs.
 China, Colombia, South Africa (with the motto ‘transform brain drain into brain gain’)
and to a lesser extent other countries are putting efforts into this.
 India has also embarked on a similar enterprise.
 It has begun the process admirably, and should follow up with intensive, creative efforts
to connect the network in meaningful endeavors in order to effectively assist the country.
 Managing the ‘Drain’.What are the
options?
Continuation
 Even more can be done by identifying those members of the Diaspora who have
acquired exceptional innovative capabilities, utilizing them to spur the home country
talents to a more innovative level, and providing easier access, open attitudes and
opportunities to bring about meaningful change.
 Within the intellectual Diaspora, some individuals have developed truly innovative
capabilities. We may call them Diaspora innovators – having acquired cultural traits and
specific knowledge that are essential to innovation in science, technology, education and
entrepreneurship.
 "Diaspora innovators" who have studied and worked for extended periods in a
modern, open innovative environment have acquired different beliefs and values from
those of their original societies.
 They view the world differently and are able to react to ongoing changes in a more
flexible, dynamic and positive manner.
 Many have acquired good managerial expertise and technological competence, as well as
"cultural literacy (the ability to recognize and exploit social, cultural, lifestyle, and ethnic
distinctions)" and "a reflexive approach to knowledge and practices" (UNESCO).
 These core competencies are crucial in creating a culture of innovation.
 Diaspora innovators indeed embody a specific capital that may be tapped for the purpose
of building a culture of innovation in the home country, and thus contribute to
developing a knowledge society there.
Conclusions and Policy Implications

 Supply of well-qualified labour is a key ingredient in the generation and diffusion of

innovation. Increased human capital not only raises labour productivity, but also serves
as a driver of technological progress through a significantly positive effect on business –
sector R&D.
 The OECD Growth Study estimated that the long –run effect on GDP per capital of one
additional year of education ranges from 4% o 7% (OECD, 2003g).
 Governments invest in its citizen’s human capital through training and education and
expect a return on their investment when the individual becomes economically and start
paying taxes.
 Within this perspective migration of highly skilled human resources present a “loss” to
the sending country, because they loss out on returns on the capital they invested in the
individual.
 However, the intellectual diaspora takes a fundamentally different stance to traditional
perspectives on the brain drain in that it sees the brain drain not as a loss but a potential
gain to the sending country.
 Conclusions and Policy Implications
Continuation
 To realize its full potential, there is need for a “democratization” and “domestication” of
science and technology in Africa.
 All key stakeholders must be involved, through national dialogues, in the policy
formulation and implementation process, so as to transcend policies that tend to be too
narrowly focused on a few number of isolated, ill-equipped and under paid researched
and academicians.
 This will contribute to moving a way from “elitist” policies, and to defining and
strengthening the respective role of public institutions, international partners,
universities, NGOs, women organizations, civil society and the private sector.
 It would also ensure that policies are tailored primarily with a view to meeting specific
needs of end-users and clients.
Annex Reference Tables
Table 1.Emigration of Skilled Africans to Industrialized Countries
Time Period Average Annual Rate Total Number
1960-1974 1,800 27,000
1975-1984 4,000 40,000

1985-1989 12,000 60,000

Since 1990 20,000 --

Source: IOM

Table 2 Intellectual Diaspora Network

Country Name of Network Type of Network
Arab Countries The Network of Arab Scientists and Technologists Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
Abroad (ASTA)
Argentina Programa para la Vinculacion con Cientificos y Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora
Tecnicos Argentinos en el Exterior (Program for Network
the Linkage of Argentine Scientists and
Technologists Abroad) (PROCITEXT)
Assam Transfer of knowledge and Technology to Assam TOK TEN Programme
 Annex Reference Tables
Table 2 Continuation
China Chinese Scholars Abroad (CHISA) Student/Scholarly Network
Society of Chinese Bioscientists in America Local Association of Expatriates
Chinese American Engineers and Scientists Local Association of Expatriates
Association of Southern California (CESASC)

Colombia The Colombian Network of Researchers and Engineers Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
Abroad (Red Caldas)

El Salvador Conectandonos al Futuro de El Salvador (Connecting Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

to El Salvodor?s Future

France Sillicon Valley Indian Professionals Association Local Association of Expatriates

(SIPA) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
Worldwide Indian Network Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
The international Associaion of Scientists and Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora Networks
Engineers and Technologists of Bharatiya Origin
Interface for Non Resident Indian Scientists and
Technoligists Programme (INRIST)

Iran The Iranian Scholars Scientific Information Network Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
Ireland The Irish Research Scientists? Association (IRSA) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
Japan Japanese Associate Network (JANET) Student/Scholarly Network
Kenya Association of Kenyans Abroad (AKA) Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
Annex Reference Tables
Table 2 Continuation
Korea Korean Scientists Engineers Association of Local Association of Expatriates
Sacramento Valley Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
The Global Korean Network
Latin America Asociation I.attino-americaine de Scientifiques (Latin Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
American Association of Scientists) (ALAS)
Lebanon TOKTEN for Lebanon TOKTEN Programme
Morocco Moroccan Association of Researchers and Scholars Student/Scholarly Network
Abroad (MARS)
Nigeria Association of Nigerians Abroad (A.N.A) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
Norway Association of Norwegian Students Student/Scholarly Network
Pakistan Return of Qualified Expatriate Nationals to Pakistan TOKTEN Programme
Palestine Programme of Assistance to the Palestine People TOKTEN Programme
Peru Red Cientifica Peruana (Peruvian Scientific Network) Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

Philippines Brain Gain Network (BGN) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network

Poland The Polish Scientists Abroad Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
Romania The Forum for Science and Reform (FORS) Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
South Africa The South African Network of Skills Abroad Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
(SANSA)
Annex Reference Tables
Table 2 Continuation

Thailand The Reverse Brain Drain Project (RBD) Developing Intell/Scien. Diaspora
Association of Thai Professionals in America and Network
Canada (ATPAC) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
The Association of Thai Professionals in Europe Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
(ATPER) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
The Association of Thai Professionals in Japan
(ATPIJ)
Tunisia The Tunisian Scientific Consortium (TSC) Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
Uruguay Red Academica Uruguaya (Uruguayan Academic Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora Network
Network)
Venezuela In contact with Venezuela Developing Intell/Scien Diaspora
El Programa Talento Venezolano en el Extrior Networks
(Program of Venezuelan Talents Abroad)
(TALVEN)
 Annex Reference Tables
Table 3 Country of medical school of sub-Saharan African international
medical graduates (IMGs) in the US and Canada

Country of training Number of African Number of trained Number of physicians % of total African
trained IMGs in IMGs in Canada remaining in trained now in
US home country US or Canada
Nigeria 2158 123 22894 9
South Africa 1943 1845 23844 14
Ghana 478 37 1210 30
Ethiopia 257 9 1564 15
Uganda 133 42 722 20
Kenya 93 19 4001 3
Zimbabwe 75 26 1694 6
Liberia 47 8 72 43
Other 12 countries* 83 35 12912 1
Total/average 5334 2151 65589 10

Source: Hagopiuan et al. (2004: 5)

Note:*other 12 countries with at least one graduate in the United States.
 Annex Reference Tables
Table 4 Overseas trained nurses registered per annum in the UK 1998-2005
(Excluding the European Union)
Country 1998/99 1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05

India 30 96 289 994 1830 3073 3690

Philippines 52 1052 3396 7235 5593 4338 2521

Australia 1335 1209 1046 1342 920 1326 981

South Africa 599 1460 1086 2114 1368 1689 933

Nigeria 179 208 347 432 509 511 466

West Indies 221 425 261 248 208 397 352

Zimbabwe 52 221 382 473 485 391 311

New Zealand 527 461 393 443 282 348 289

Ghana 40 74 140 195 251 354 272

Pakistan 3 13 44 207 172 140 205
Zambia 15 40 88 183 133 169 162
US 139 168 147 122 88 141 105
 Annex Reference Tables
Table 4 Continuation
Mauritius 6 15 41 62 59 95 102
Kenya 19 29 50 155 152 146 99
Botswana 4 - 87 100 39 90 91
Canada 196 130 89 79 52 89 88
Nepal 21 43 73

Swaziland 81 69

China 60

Malawi 1 15 45 75 57 64 52
Others 637 495

Total 3621 5945 8403 15,064 12,730 14,1222 11,416

Source: NMC (2005).

Listed by most numerous country applicants in 2004-05
THE ASSOCIATION OF AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES (AAU),

Thank You
FOR THE OPPORTUNITY