BATTERIES

• 2 CLASSES OF BATTERIES

• PRIMARY CELLS

• SECONDARY CELLS
 PRIMARY CELLS

• CANNOT BE RECHARGED

• CHEMICAL PROCESS NOT REVERSABLE

• ZINC CARBON (1.5V)

• ALKALINE (1.5V)
 SECONDARY CELLS

• CAN BE RECHARGED

• CHEMICAL REACTION REVERSABLE

• LEAD ACID (2.0V)

• NICKEL - CADMIUM (1.2V)
• NICKEL - METAL HYDRIDE (1.2V)
• LITHIUM – ION (3.3V)
 COMPOSITION OF A
BATTERY
• The Lead Acid battery is made up of seperator plates, lead
plates, and lead oxide plates (various other elements are used
to change density, hardness, porosity, etc.) with a 35%
sulphuric acid and 65% water solution.
• This solution is called electrolyte which causes a chemical
reaction that produce electrons.

• When a battery discharges the electrolyte dilutes and the

sulphur deposits on the lead plates.

• When the battery is recharged the process reverses and the

sulphur dissolves into the electrolyte.
BATTERY CROSS SECTION
 TYPES OF RECHARGABLE
LEAD ACID BATTERIES

• STARTING/CRANKING BATTERIES
TYPES OF RECHARGABLE LEAD
ACID BATTERIES

• STARTING/CRANKING BATTERIES

• DEEP CYCLE BATTERIES

TYPES OF RECHARGABLE LEAD
ACID BATTERIES

• STARTING/CRANKING BATTERIES

• DEEP CYCLE BATTERIES

• DUAL PURPOSE BATTERIES

 TYPES OF RECHARGABLE
LEAD ACID BATTERIES

• STARTING/CRANKING BATTERIES

• MANY THIN PLATES

• LARGE AMOUNT OF CURRENT DELIVERY
OVER SHORT TIME
• DAMAGE CAUSED IF DEEPLY DISCHARGED
TYPES OF RECHARGABLE LEAD
ACID BATTERIES

• DEEP CYCLE BATTERIES

• FEWER THICKER PLATES

• LOWER CURRENT DELIVERY OVER LONG
PERIODS
• CAN BE DISCHARGED BY 50% WITHOUT
DAMAGE
• CAN BE CYCLED MANY TIMES
TYPES OF RECHARGABLE LEAD
ACID BATTERIES

• DUAL PURPOSE BATTERIES

• COMPROMISE BETWEEN MANY THIN

PLATES AND FEWER THICK PLATES
• CAN BE DISCHARGED BY 50%
• FEWER CYCLES THAN DEEP CYCLE
BATTERY
 TECHNOLOGIES
• Flooded
– Sometimes called “flooded” or “free-vented”

• Gelled Electrolyte (Gel)

– Also called Valve-Regulated Lead Acid
(VRLA)

• Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)

– Also called Valve-Regulated Lead Acid
(VRLA)
FLOODED VENTED
GEL
AGM
STATE OF CHARGE
 Basic Charging Methods
• Constant Voltage Cheap battery chargers
• Constant Current Switches off at voltage set-point
• Taper Current Unregulated constant voltage
• Pulsed charge Voltage PWM, on/rest/on
• Negative Pulse Charge Short discharge pulse
• IUI Charging Constant I, constant V, equalize
• IUO Charging Constant I, constant V, float
• Trickle charge Compensate for self discharge
• Float charge Constant voltage below gassing V
• Random charging Solar panel, KERS
 CHARGING

3 STAGES
• BULK

• ABSORPTION/ACCEPT

• FLOAT
 CHARGING
BULK STAGE

• MAXIMUM VOLTAGE

• MAXIMUM CURRENT
 •CHARGING
ABSORPTION

• CONTROLED VOLTAGE

• MAXIMUM CURRENT
 CHARGING
FLOAT

• CONTROLED VOLTAGE

• CONTROLED CURRENT
 CHARGING VOLTAGES

Flooded Gel AGM

• Charging voltage @ 20º C

• Bulk - 14.4 to 14.8 14.2 to 14.4 14.4 to 14.8

• Acceptance - 14.2 to 14.4 14.00 to 14.2 14.2 to 14.4

• Float - 13.2 to 13.6 13.5 to 13.8 13.2 to 13.5

• Equalization - 15.0 to 16.0 Do NOT Equalize Do NOT Equalize

 SULPHATION
Sulphation of Batteries starts when
specific gravity falls below 1.225 or voltage
measures less than 12.4 (12v Battery).
Sulphation hardens the battery plates
reducing and eventually destroying the
ability of the battery to generate Volts and
Amps. The battery develops a high
electrical resistance.
 WHAT NOT TO DO WITH
BATTERIES
The following is detrimental to the life span of a battery:
• Incorrect charge voltage.

• Too low a voltage means that the battery does not charge to 100% - the sulphate
then hardens on the plates and the battery loses some of it capacity. Excessive
voltage causes the batteries to generate excessive gas leading to water los and
drying out.

• Excessive discharging.

• Discharging a battery further than its capacity greatly shortens its life span

• Too many cycles, high charge voltage, excessive discharging and significant voltage
ripple in the charge voltage caused by cheap chargers and alternators.

• Charging without 3 step regulation and very high electrolyte temperatures.

 BATTERY TERMINOLOGY
• VRLAB Flooded Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries
• GEL Gelled Electrolyte Lead Acid Battery
• AGM Advanced Glass Mat Battery
• CCA Cold Cranking Amps -18°C terminal V ≥7.2V for 30 sec.
• CA Cranking Amps 0°C terminal V ≥7.2V for 30 sec.
• RC Reserve Capacity 25°C terminal V ≥ 10.5V 25A Load = time
• AH 100Ah = 20 hrs @ 5A load terminal V ≥ 10.5V
• Peukert Exponent (ⁿ) Charge factor indicating efficiency of a battery
Flooded cell battery is 80%. Must be recharged 1.2 times the capacity to
reach 100%. Dynamic. Lower the factor – more efficient. Lithium-Ion 1.05.
• Cp=Iⁿt Battery capacity = Discharge Current ⁿ x Time hrs
LITHIUM IRON PHOSPHATE
24V (26.4V Nominal) 160Ah 4.3kWh
BATTERIES
&
CHARGERS

Dr. Larik
SERIES CONNECTIONS

The battery voltages add together, the

resulting pack voltage is 24 volts.

The capacity of the battery pack is the

same as that of an individual battery.

This assumes that the capacities of

the individual batteries are the same.
In fact, this is a must.

Do not mix and match different size

batteries in the same battery pack.
 PARALLEL CONNECTIONS

The battery pack voltage is the same as the voltage of the individual
battery.
In fact, this is an absolute must. Do not mix and match different
battery voltages in the same battery pack. In this example the
battery pack voltage is 12 volts which is exactly the same as each of
the individual 12-volt batteries.

The capacity of the battery pack is the sum of the capacities of the
individual batteries. Again, make sure that all of the batteries are the
same size, that is that they have the same amp-hour capacity.
 SERIES / PARALLEL CONNECTIONS

4 batteries each, using 12 volt, 20 Ah batteries. In this examples, the 4

batteries are A, B, C, and D.
2 pairs of series connected batteries joined in a single parallel
connection. In this type of arrangement, we refer to each pair of series
connected batteries as a "string".

Batteries A and C are in series. Batteries B and D are in series.

The string A and C is in parallel with the string B and D. Notice that the
total battery pack voltage is 24 volts and that the total battery pack
capacity is 40 amp-hours.
2 pairs of parallel-connected batteries joined in a single series
connection.

Batteries A and B are in parallel. Batteries C and D are in parallel.

The parallel combination A and B is in series with the parallel

combination C
and D. Again, the total battery pack voltage is 24 volts and that the
total battery pack capacity is 40 amp-hours.
CONNECTING BATTERY CHARGERS TO SERIES
AND PARALLEL BATTERY PACKS

 The positive charger output (red) connects to the positive

battery post. The negative charger output (black) connects to
the negative battery post. Always remember:

 Positive connects to positive and negative connects to

negative the charger and the battery must have the same
voltage.
The purpose of blue wire W1 is to balance the voltage drop evenly across
both batteries and each wire during charging.

This is not critical for lower current chargers, but when you start to get into
the 10 amp and above range, the voltage differential can be significant.

The blue wire W1 must be connected to the opposite end of the battery
pack as the black wire at the top of the battery pack

 When batteries are connected in parallel, only use one charger. Do not
connect a charger to each battery, unless you break the electrical
connection between the batteries. [???]
 BATTERY CHARGING CURRENT AND BATTERY CHARGING TIME

Battery A h
Ch arg ing time of battery 
Ch arg ing Current
Ah
T 
Example, A
For 120 Ah battery,
• Charging current should be 10% of the Ah rating of battery.

• Therefore charging current for 120 Ah battery;

 10 
 120     12 Amperes
 100 

But due to losses, we can take 12-14amperes for charging purpose.

Suppose we took 13 Amp for charging purpose,

Then charging time for 120ah battery = 120 / 13 = 9.23 hrs.

but this was an ideal case…
Practically, this is noted that 40% of losses ( in case of battery charging)

 Then 120 x (40 / 100) = 48 …..(120Ah x 40% of losses)

 Therefore, 120 + 48 = 168 Ah ( 120 Ah + Losses)

 Now Charging Time of battery = Ah/Charging Current

168 / 13 = 12.92 or 13 Hrs ( in real case)

Therefore, an 120Ah battery would take 13 Hrs for completely charging ( with 13A
charging current).
 BATTERY CHARGER CIRCUIT
R1, R2 = 10K,
P1, P2 = 10K PRESET,
T1, T2 = BC 547B,
C1 = 2200uF/25V
C2 = 47uF/25V (Please connect this capacitor across the
relay coil)
D1---D4 = 1N5408,
D5, D6 = 1N4007,
RELAY = 12 VOLT, SPDT,
TRANSFORMER = AS PER THE CONNECTED
BATTERY AH (DIVIDE BY 5)
 DI – D4 = working as rectifier
 C1 = dc ripple filter
 P1 – P2 = variable resistor for voltage set
point.
 T1 – T2 = transistors (Electronic switch ) for
controlling relay.
 RI – R2 = for transistor base drive ckt.
 D5 = Free wheel diode for removing relay
coil switching spikes.
 D6 = Giving reference signal to the
controller (feedback voltage signal to the
controller).
Battery Performance
Characteristics

Dr. Larik
Discharge Curves

Energy cells have been

developed for a wide
range of applications
using a variety of different
technologies, resulting in
a wide range of available
performance
characteristics.

The graphs show some of

the main factors an
applications engineer
should take into account
when specifying a battery
to match the performance
requirements of the end
product.
 Self Discharge Characteristics
It is a measure of how quickly a cell will lose its energy while sitting on the
shelf due to unwanted chemical actions within the cell. The rate depends
on the cell chemistry and the temperature.

Cell Chemistry
The following shows the typical shelf life for some primary cells:
 Zinc Carbon (Leclanché) 2 to 3 years
 Alkaline 5 years
 Lithium 10 years or more
Typical self discharge rates for common rechargeable cells are as follows:
 Lead Acid 4% to 6% per month
 Nickel Cadmium 15% to 20% per month
 Nickel Metal Hydride 30% per month
 Lithium 2% to 3% per month
 Internal Impedance
The internal impedance of a cell determines its current carrying capability.
A low internal resistance allows high currents.
Battery Equivalent Circuit

The diagram shows the equivalent circuit for an energy cell.

Rm is the resistance of the metallic path through the cell

including the terminals, electrodes and inter-connections.
Ra is the resistance of the electrochemical path including the
electrolyte and the separator.
Cb is the capacitance of the parallel plates which form the
electrodes of the cell.
Ri is the non-linear contact resistance between the plate or
electrode and the electrolyte.

 Typical internal resistance is in the order of milliohms.

Effects of Internal Impedance
When current flows through the cell there is an IR voltage drop across
the internal resistance of the cell which decreases the terminal voltage
of the cell during discharge and increases the voltage needed to charge
the cell thus reducing its effective capacity as well as decreasing its
charge/discharge efficiency.
Higher discharge rates give rise to higher internal voltage drops which
explains the lower voltage discharge curves at high C rates. See
"Discharge Rates" below.
The internal impedance is affected by the physical characteristics of the
electrolyte, the smaller the granular size of the electrolyte material the
lower the impedance. The grain size is controlled by the cell
manufacturer in a milling process.
The internal resistance of a galvanic cell is temperature dependent,
decreasing as the temperature rises due to the increase in electron
mobility. The graph below is a typical example.