03/02/21 1

DC DC CONVERTERS
(DC CHOPPERS)

Dr. Larik
Dr. Mahar
 DC DC CONVERTERS
 DEFINITION: Fixed voltage d.c. is converter
to variable voltage d.c.

 DC-DC converters, convert a source of

direct current from one voltage stage to
another.

DC DC O/P
 Basic block diagram Input

03/02/21 3
DC-DC Converters

Attractive features of dc-dc topologies

include:

 lower conduction loss,

 high switching speed,
 fast dynamic response,
 high efficiency and
 small size.
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DC-DC Converters
 High frequency dc-dc converters are now
days widely used in the diversity of Power
Electronics applications.

 High operating frequencies will cause in

reduction in the size of passive component,
such as inductors, capacitors and power
transformers.

 By operating the converter at higher

frequencies the switching loss at both
conditions turn-on and turn-off increases as
the frequency increases from the range of
4kHz [8].
03/02/21 5
DC-DC Converters

 Switching of these converters at high

frequencies will affect the power quality
because these converters will produce
inrush, pulsating current phenomenon with
excessive harmonics and high voltage
distortion.

 Power quality problems usually involve a

variation in the electric service frequency
voltage or current, such as voltage dips and
fluctuations, momentary interruptions,
harmonics and oscillatory transients
causing failure, or mal-operation of power
03/02/21 6
 Applications of DC DC converters
 dc Motor drives,
 Computer systems
 Communication equipments
 Battery chargers
 Welders, heaters
 Wind farms
 Aircraft systems
 Solar photovoltaic cells
 Switch mode power supplies
 High voltage direct current (HVDC)
 AC machine field control circuits

03/02/21
Power factor correction circuits etc. 7
CHOPPERS

03/02/21 8
Types of DC DC Converters
 Step up chopper
In step up chopper, the output voltage
is always greater than input voltage.

 Step down chopper

In step down chopper, the output
voltage is always less than input
voltage.

03/02/21 9
Operating Modes of DC DC Converters
 There are two operating modes of dc dc converter.

 Continuous conduction mode (CCM)

 Discontinuous conduction mode (DCM).

 Continuous conduction mode (CCM) refers to conduction when

the inductor current is never zero for any time period.
 DC-DC converters operate at CCM at heavy loads.

 In discontinuous conduction mode (DCM), the inductor current

becomes zero at some time.
DC-DC converters operate at DCM at light loads

03/02/21 10
 CCM

DCM

03/02/21 11
 Chopper Output Control Strategies
Variable Frequency Control (FM):
 In this scheme, the chopper
frequency, f is kept variable and for
this purpose either (a) ON time, TON or
(b) OFF time, TOFF is kept constant. This (a)

scheme is called, therefore, frequency

modulation scheme. (b)

 In Fig. (a) and (b), ON time TON is

constant while OFF time TOFF of the (c)

switch is variable.
(d)
 Fig. (c) and (d) are for variable ON
(a) & (b) TON is constant, TOFF is
time and constant OFF time TOFF.
variable
(c) & (d) TOFF constant, TON
 This technique is suitable for
switches which require forced
commutation to turn OFF.
03/02/21 12
 Chopper Output Control Strategies

Constant Frequency Control(PWM):

 Under this control scheme the

chopping period T remains constant
but the pulse width TON is varied to
control the output. This is called,
therefore, pulse width modulation
(PWM) control.
(a) D=0.75 (b) D= 0.5
In the figure, time T = TON + TOFF is
constant but TON and TOFF both are
variable.

03/02/21 13
Generations of DC-DC Converters
Power DC/DC converters have plenty of topologies, there are more
than 1000 topologies of power DC/DC converters.

 First-generation (classical/traditional) converters

 Second-generation (multi-quadrant) converters

 Third-generation (switched-component SI/SC) converters

 Fourth-generation (soft-switching: ZCS/ZVS/ZT) converters

 Fifth-generation (synchronous rectifier, SR) converters

 Sixth-generation (multiple energy-storage elements resonant)

converters

03/02/21 14
 DC/DC Converter Family Tree

03/02/21 15
 DC/DC Converter Family Tree (Continued)

03/02/21 16
 DC/DC Converter Family Tree (Continued

03/02/21 17
 The First-Generation Converters
The first-generation converters perform in a single-
quadrant mode and in low-power range (up to around
100W). it has briefly five categories:

 Fundamental converters
 Transformer-type converters
 Developed converters
 Voltage-lift converters
 Super-lift converters

Fundamental converters
Three types of fundamental DC/DC topologies were constructed,
which are Buck converter, Boost converter and Buck–Boost
converter. They can be derived from single-quadrant operation
choppers. For example, buck converter was derived from
A-type chopper. These converters have two main problems: linkage
between input and output, and very large output voltage ripple.
03/02/21 18
Transformer-Type Converters

 Since all fundamental DC/DC converters keep the linkage from

input side to output side and the voltage transfer gain is low.

 Transformer-type converters were developed during 1960s to

1980s.

 These are a large number of converters such as:

 Forward converter,
 Push–Pull converter,
 Fly-back converter,
 Half-Bridge converter,
 Full Bridge converter and
 zeta (or ZETA) converter.

 Usually, these converters have high transfer voltage gain and

high insulation between both sides.

 Their gain usually depends on the transformer’s turns ratio N,

03/02/21 which can be several thousand times. 19
The Second-Generation Converters

The second-generation converters are called multiple-

quadrant operation converters.

These converters perform in two- and four-quadrant

operation with medium output power range (say 100W or
higher).

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The Second-Generation Converters
Usually, one-quadrant operation requires at least one switch.

Therefore, a two-quadrant operation converter has at least

two switches, and a four-quadrant operation converter has at
least four switches.

Multiple-quadrant choppers were employed in industrial

applications for a long time. It can be used to implement the
DC motor multiple-quadrant operation.

• Class-A converter (one-quadrant operation)

• Class-B converter (two-quadrant operation)
• Class-C converter
• Class-D converter
03/02/21 21
• Class-E (four-quadrant operation) converter
The Third-Generation Converters

 The third-generation converters are called switched

component converters

 These are made of either inductor or capacitors, which are so-

called switched-inductor and switched-capacitors.

 They can performing two- or four-quadrant operation with

high-output powe rrange (say 1000W).

 Since they are made of only inductor or capacitors, they are

small. Consequently, the power density and efficiency are
high.

03/02/21 22
The Fourth-Generation Converters

 The fourth-generation DC/DC converters are called soft-

switching converters.

 There are four types of soft-switching methods:

 Resonant-switch converters

 Load-resonant converters

 Resonant-DC-link converters

 High-frequency-link integral-half-cycle converters

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 Fifth Generation (Synchronous rectifiers)
converters

 These converters are called series resonance dc-dc

converters.

 These converters are generally used in the

development of computing technology progress.

 The converters of low power levels, with low output

voltage and strong current are generally required in
communications, computer components and other
industrial applications.

03/02/21 24
 Sixth Generation (Multi-element resonant) Converters

 The converters concerned with this group are

called multiple energy-storage elements and
resonant power converters.

 Various topologies are the series resonant

converters and parallel resonant converters that
consist of multiple energy-storage elements.

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 Step-Down Buck Converter

(a) Circuit diagram

 The state of the converter

in which the inductor current
is never zero for any period of
time is called the continuous
conduction mode (CCM)

(b) Waveforms
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 Step-Down Buck Converter
 When the switch S is commanded to the on-state, the
diode D is reversed biased. When the switch S is off, the
diode conducts to support an uninterrupted current in the
inductor
 The relationship among VS, VO & D can be derived, for
instance, from the VL waveform as:

(VS - VO) DT = VO (1 – D)T

VO / VS = D
D=ton/(ton+toff)
D= ton/ T

03/02/21 27
 Transformer Version of Buck Converters

 Among buck derived dc-dc converters

following are the most popular:

 Forward Converter
 Push-pull converter
 Half-bridge Converter
 Full-bridge Converter

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 Forward Converter

 The dc voltage transfer function of the forward converter is

MV = D / n Where, n = N1 / N2
 Equations Lb = (1 – D)R/2f & Cmin = (1 –D) VO / 8 Vr L f2 can be
used to design the filter components
 These converters are popular for low power applications

03/02/21 29
 Push-pull Converter

 The dc voltage transfer function of the push-pull converter is

MV = 2D / n Where, n = N1 / N2
 The boundary value of the filter inductor is
Lb = (1 – 2D)R / 4 f
 The filter capacitor can be obtained from
Cmin = (1 – 2D) VO / 32 Vr L f2

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 Half-bridge Converter

 The dc voltage transfer function of the forward converter is

MV = D / n Where, n = N1 / N2 & D ≤ 0.5

 Equations Lb = (1 – 2D)R / 4 f & Cmin = (1 – 2D) VO / 32 Vr L f2 apply

to the filter components

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 Full-bridge Converter

 The dc voltage transfer function of the push-pull converter is

MV = 2D / n Where, n = N1 / N2 & D ≤ 0.5
 Equations Lb = (1 – 2D)R / 4 f & Cmin = (1 – 2D) VO / 32 Vr L f2 apply to

the filter components

 This converter topology is very versatile & is popular in dc-ac
conversion (square-wave & PWM single-phase inverters), & it is also
used in four-quadrant dc drives

03/02/21 32
 Step-Up Boost Converter
To obtain average value of output voltage
greater than Vs, a capacitor must be
Connected in parallel with the load & this
Results in topology of boost converter

The relationship among VS, VO & D

can be derived, for instance, from
the VL waveform as:

VS DT = ( VO – VS) (1 – D)T
Hence, the dc voltage transfer
function, defined as the ratio of the
out put voltage to the input
voltage, is
VO / VS =1 / 1 - D

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DC Chopper (Step up )
 When chopper is on the inductor
stores energy during Ton period. When
the chopper is off, the inductor current
can not die down instantaneously, but The dc step-up chopper
this current is forced to flow through the
diode & load for a time Toff. As a result, + -
voltage across load exceeds the source
voltage & is given by:
Vo = Vs + L(di/dt)
 In this manner the circuit acts as a
-
step-up chopper & the energy stored in +

L is released to the load.

 When chopper is on, current through
L would increase from I1 to I2 & source
voltage is applied to L, then VL = Vs
I2
 When chopper is off, current would
I1
fall from I2 toI1 & VL = Vo – Vs. I1
03/02/21 34
 Buck-Boost Converter

 The condition of a zero volt-

second product for the
inductor in steady state yields

VS DT = – VO (1 – D)T

Hence, the dc voltage transfer

function, defined as the ratio of
the out put voltage to the input
voltage, is

MV = VO / VS = -D / 1 - D
03/02/21 35
 Buck-Boost Converter

 The output voltage VO is negative with respect to the

ground. Its magnitude can be either greater or smaller
(equal at D=0.5) than the input voltage as the name of the
converter implies
 The value of the inductor that determines the boundary
between the CCM & DCM is
Lb = (1 – D)2 R / 2f
 The structure of the output part of the converter is similar
to that of the boost converter ( reversed polarities are the
only difference). Thus the value of the filter capacitor can be
obtained from
Cmin = D VO / Vr R f

03/02/21 36
 Fly back Converter

 A PWM flyback converter is a

very practical isolated version of
the buck-boost converter
 The inductor of the buck-boost
converter has been replaced by a
flyback transformer
 When the switch S is on, the
current in the magnetizing inductance
increases linearly, the diode D is off
and there is no current in the ideal
transformer windings. When the
(b)
switch is turned off, the magnetizing
inductance current is diverted into (a) circuit diagram; (b) circuit with
the ideal transformer, the diode turns a transformer model showing the
magnetizing inductance Lm.
on, and the transformed magnetizing
inductance current is supplied to the
RC load.
03/02/21 37
 DC Chopper (Step down )

tOn tOn
D= =
tOn + tOff T
Where, T = 1/ f is the period of
switching frequency f. The
average value of the out put
voltage is:
V o = D Vs
and the out put voltage can be
regulated by adjusting the duty
ratio D. The average out put
voltage is always smaller than the
input voltage & hence the name is
Step Down choppers.
03/02/21 38
DC Chopper (Step up )
 When chopper is on the inductor
stores energy during Ton period. When
the chopper is off, the inductor current
can not die down instantaneously, but The dc step-up chopper
this current is forced to flow through the
diode & load for a time Toff. As a result, + -
voltage across load exceeds the source
voltage & is given by:
Vo = Vs + L(di/dt)
 In this manner the circuit acts as a
-
step-up chopper & the energy stored in +

L is released to the load.

 When chopper is on, current through
L would increase from I1 to I2 & source
voltage is applied to L, then VL = Vs
I2
 When chopper is off, current would
I1
fall from I2 toI1 & VL = Vo – Vs. I1
03/02/21 39
 The energy input to inductor from the source, during the period
Ton is: Win=(voltage across L) (average current through L) Ton
I I 
 Vs  1 2 Ton
 2 
 The energy released by inductor during the period Toff is:
Woff=(voltage across L) (average current through L) Toff
I I 
 Vo  Vs   1 2 Toff
 2 
 Considering the system to be lossless, Therefore:
 I  I2   I  I2 
Vs  1 Ton  Vo  Vs   1 Toff
 2   2 
Vs Ton  Toff   VoToff
Ton  Toff T 1
Vo  Vs  Vs  V
Toff T  Ton Ton s
1
T
1
Vo  Vs
1 D
 From above equation it is clear that by varying the duty cycle the average
output voltage across the load can be stepped up.
03/02/21 40
 Step-Down Buck Converter

(a) Circuit diagram

 The state of the converter

in which the inductor current
is never zero for any period of
time is called the continuous
conduction mode (CCM)

(b) Waveforms
03/02/21 41
 Step-Down Buck Converter
 When the switch S is commanded to the on-state, the
diode D is reversed biased. When the switch S is off, the
diode conducts to support an uninterrupted current in the
inductor
 The relationship among VS, VO & D can be derived, for
instance, from the VL waveform as:

(VS - VO) DT = VO (1 – D)T

Hence, the dc voltage transfer function, defined as the
ratio of the out put voltage to the input voltage, is

MV = VO / VS = D
 The above equation shows that the out put voltage is
always less than the input voltage

03/02/21 42
 Step-Down Buck Converter
 The dc-dc converters can operate in two distinct modes with
respect to the inductor current i.e. Continuous Conduction Mode
(CCM) & Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM)
 For the buck converter, the value of the filter inductance that
determines the boundary between CCM & DCM is given by

Lb = (1 – D)R/2f
 The filter inductor current iL in the CCM consists of a dc
component with a superimposed triangular ac component. Almost
all of this ac component flows through the filter capacitor as a
current iC. Current iC causes a small voltage ripple across the dc
out put voltage VO . To limit the peak-to-peak value of the ripple
voltage below a certain value Vr , the filter capacitance must be
greater than

Cmin = (1 –D) VO / 8 Vr L f2
 The above two equations are the key design equations for the
buck
03/02/21
converters 43
 Transformer Version of Buck Converters

 In many dc power supplies, a galvanic

isolation between the dc or ac input and the
dc out put is required for safety and
reliability.
 An economical means of achieving such
an isolation is to employ a transformer
version of a dc converter.
 high frequency transformers are of a small
size and low weight and provide high
efficiency. Their turns ratio can be used
additionally to adjust the output voltage level.

03/02/21 44
 Transformer Version of Buck Converters

 Among buck derived dc-dc converters

following are the most popular:

 Forward Converter
 Push-pull converter
 Half-bridge Converter
 Full-bridge Converter

03/02/21 45
 Forward Converter

 The dc voltage transfer function of the forward converter is

MV = D / n Where, n = N1 / N2
 Equations Lb = (1 – D)R/2f & Cmin = (1 –D) VO / 8 Vr L f2 can be
used to design the filter components
 These converters are popular for low power applications

03/02/21 46
 Push-pull Converter

 The dc voltage transfer function of the push-pull converter is

MV = 2D / n Where, n = N1 / N2
 The boundary value of the filter inductor is
Lb = (1 – 2D)R / 4 f
 The filter capacitor can be obtained from
Cmin = (1 – 2D) VO / 32 Vr L f2

03/02/21 47
 Half-bridge Converter

 The dc voltage transfer function of the forward converter is

MV = D / n Where, n = N1 / N2 & D ≤ 0.5

 Equations Lb = (1 – 2D)R / 4 f & Cmin = (1 – 2D) VO / 32 Vr L f2 apply

to the filter components

03/02/21 48
 Full-bridge Converter

 The dc voltage transfer function of the push-pull converter is

MV = 2D / n Where, n = N1 / N2 & D ≤ 0.5
 Equations Lb = (1 – 2D)R / 4 f & Cmin = (1 – 2D) VO / 32 Vr L f2 apply to

the filter components

 This converter topology is very versatile & is popular in dc-ac
conversion (square-wave & PWM single-phase inverters), & it is also
used in four-quadrant dc drives

03/02/21 49
 Step-Up Boost Converter
To obtain average value of output voltage
greater than Vs, a capacitor must be
Connected in parallel with the load & this
Results in topology of boost converter

The relationship among VS, VO & D

can be derived, for instance, from
the VL waveform as:

VS DT = ( VO – VS) (1 – D)T
Hence, the dc voltage transfer
function, defined as the ratio of the
out put voltage to the input
voltage, is
MV = VO / VS =1 / 1 - D

03/02/21 50
 Step-Up Boost Converter
 The output voltage is always greater than the input
voltage. The boost converter operates in the CCM for L > Lb
where
Lb = (1 – D)2 D R / 2f

 The current supplied to the output RC circuit is

discontinuous. Thus, a larger filter capacitor is required in
comparison to that in the buck-derived converters to limit the
output voltage ripple.

 The filter capacitor must provide the output dc current to

the load when the diode D is off. The minimum value of the
filter capacitance that results in the voltage ripple Vr is given
by
Cmin = D VO / Vr R f

 The boost converter does not have a popular transformer

version
03/02/21 51
 Buck-Boost Converter

 The condition of a zero volt-

second product for the
inductor in steady state yields

VS DT = – VO (1 – D)T

Hence, the dc voltage transfer

function, defined as the ratio of
the out put voltage to the input
voltage, is

MV = VO / VS = -D / 1 - D
03/02/21 52
 Buck-Boost Converter

 The output voltage VO is negative with respect to the

ground. Its magnitude can be either greater or smaller
(equal at D=0.5) than the input voltage as the name of the
converter implies
 The value of the inductor that determines the boundary
between the CCM & DCM is
Lb = (1 – D)2 R / 2f
 The structure of the output part of the converter is similar
to that of the boost converter ( reversed polarities are the
only difference). Thus the value of the filter capacitor can be
obtained from
Cmin = D VO / Vr R f

03/02/21 53
 Fly back Converter

 A PWM flyback converter is a

very practical isolated version of
the buck-boost converter
 The inductor of the buck-boost
converter has been replaced by a
flyback transformer
 When the switch S is on, the
current in the magnetizing inductance
increases linearly, the diode D is off
and there is no current in the ideal
transformer windings. When the
(b)
switch is turned off, the magnetizing
inductance current is diverted into (a) circuit diagram; (b) circuit with
the ideal transformer, the diode turns a transformer model showing the
magnetizing inductance Lm.
on, and the transformed magnetizing
inductance current is supplied to the
RC load.
03/02/21 54
 Fly back Converter
 The dc voltage transfer function of the flyback converter
is
MV = VO/ VS = D / n(1 – D)

 It differs from the buck-boost converter voltage transfer

function by the turns ratio factor n. A positive sign has
been obtained by an appropriate coupling of the
transformer windings.
 Unlike in transformer buck-derived converters, the
magnetizing inductance Lm of the flyback transformer is
an important design parameter. The value of the
magnetizing inductance that determines the boundary
between the CCM and DCM is given by
Lmb = n2(1 – D)2 R / 2f
 The value of the filter capacitance can be calculated
Cmin = D VO / Vr R f

03/02/21 55
 Effects of Parasitics

 Nonidealities or parasitics of practical devices and

components may, greatly affect some performance
parameters of dc-dc converters.
A more realistic model of a capacitor than simply a
capacitance C, consists of a series connection of
capacitance C and resistance rC. The resistance rC is
called an equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the
capacitor and is due to losses in the dielectric and
physical resistance of leads and connections.
Equation, Cmin = (1 –D) VO / 8 Vr L f2 , provided a value of the
filter capacitance in a buck converter that limits the peak-to-peak
output voltage ripple to Vr . This equation was derived under an
assumption that the entire triangular ac component of the
inductor current flows through a capacitance C. It is, however,
closer to reality to maintain that this triangular component flows
through a series connection of capacitance C and resistance rC.
03/02/21 56
The peak-to-peak ripple voltage is independent of the
voltage across the filter capacitor and is determined only by
the ripple voltage of the ESR if the following condition is
satisfied:
C ≤ Cmin = max [1 – Dmin / 2 rC f , Dmax / 2rC f]

If condition of the above Eq. is satisfied, the peak-to-peak

ripple voltage of the buck and forward converters is

Vr = rC ΔiLmax = rC VO (1 – Dmin) / fL
For push-pull, half-bridge, and full-bridge converters,

C ≥ Cmin = max [0.5 – Dmin / 2rC f , Dmax / 2rCf]

where Dmax ≥ 0.5. If above Eq. is met, the peak-to-peak

ripple voltage Vr of these converters is given by

Vr = rC ΔiLmax = rC VO (0.5 – Dmin) / -fL

03/02/21 57
Effects of Parasitics

03/02/21 58
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03/02/21 61
 Switching of dc-dc converters are commonly used
in consumer’s products as well as in industrial,
medical, uninterrupted power supplies, , battery
chargers, dc motor drives andeequipment due to their
high efficiency, low volume and weight, fast dynamic
response and low cost [5-7].

03/02/21 62
 Functions of dc-dc converters
 To convert a dc input voltage into a dc output voltage

 To regulate the dc output voltage against load and line

variations.

 To reduce the ac voltage ripple on the dc output voltage

below the required level.

 To provide isolation between the input source and the load

(isolation is not always required).

 To protect the supplied system and the input source from

electromagnetic interference (EMI).


03/02/21 63
 Disadvantages of Variable Frequency Control
over constant Frequency Control Method

(i) Chopping frequency is required to be varied over a

large range to control the output. Thus the output has
wide range of harmonics. The design of a filter to
remove such a wide range of harmonics is quit difficult.

(ii) For the control of duty cycle the OFF period may be so
large that load current falls to zero between two
consecutive pulses. This leads to discontinuity in the
load current which is not desirable.

(iii) For the control of D, frequency variation would be wide.

As such there is a possibility of interference with
signaling & telephone lines in frequency modulation
schemes
03/02/21 64