Unit 02

The Nature of Light

 Outcomes
Distinguish between wave and particle nature of light

Distinguish between electric and magnetic fields.

Derive Maxwell's equations and solve problems

Calculate amplitude, wavelength, period, frequency and speed of

different waves.

Knowledge in basic quantum optics that include photons,

energy levels in atoms, molecules and solids.

Differentiate between irradiance and radiant exitance.

Do calculations involving irradiance determination.

Knowledge and calculations involving radiometry.

 Light is electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a form of energy that is all
around us and takes many forms, such as radio waves,
microwaves, X-rays and gamma rays
Light has dual nature

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a form of energy that is propagated

through free space or through a material medium in the form of
electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, visible light, and gamma
rays
It is a kind of radiation in which electric and magnetic fields vary
simultaneously.

the visible light that comes from a lamp in your house and the radio
waves that come from a radio station are two examples of
electromagnetic radiation.
Is light a wave or a particle?

This question was discussed for centuries

It is in fact neither, but has some of the properties and

behaviours of both

When light is propagating through free space it behaves like

a transverse electromagnetic wave

When light interacts with matter, it behaves like a stream of

particles (photons)

We study here the wave nature of light, which is described

by solutions of Maxwell’s wave equation
 Electromagnetic Waves
light is a transverse electromagnetic wave, described by the
Maxwell wave equations

A wave is a travelling disturbance that transmits energy

from one point to another
A wave can be described by the following quantities:

Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement of the wave

from the level of the undisturbed medium

Wavelength (λ) is the distance over which the wave repeats

itself, for example from one crest to the following crest

one wavelength is also called one cycle of the wave

Period (T) is the time it takes for the wave to repeat itself,
that is, the time required for one cycle to be completed

period is measured in seconds

Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles per unit time

Speed ( c ) is given as c  f
where c is the speed of the wave
 is the wavelength of the wave
f
is the frequency of the wave

Frequency is the inverse of the period, f = 1/T

The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz)

1 Hz = 1 cycle per second

1 Hz = 1 s-1 or 1/s
Fig. 2.1
Amplitude, period and wavelength for a wave
 In the drawing, one cycle is shaded in color.

The amplitude A is the maximum excursion of a particle of the

medium from the particles undisturbed position.

The wavelength is the horizontal length of one cycle of the wave.

The period is the time required for one complete cycle.

The frequency is related to the period and has units of Hz, or s-1.

1
f 
T
Example 2.1

A student sits at the end of a dock watching the waves roll in.
She estimates the distance from the highest to the lowest
point on the wave is 30 cm and that the distance between
wave peaks is 80 cm. In 10 seconds, 5 waves pass her
position.

What are the amplitude, wavelength, period and frequency

of the ocean waves she observes?
 Solution:
The amplitude is the distance from the level of the
undisturbed water to the peak of the wave, that is, one half
the peak-to-valley (highest to lowest) distance.
For these waves

A = ½ (30 cm) = 15 cm or 0.15 m

The wavelength is the distance between wave peaks, 80 cm

or

λ = 0.80 m
The period is the time for one wave to pass, that is, the time
from one peak to the next. If 5 waves pass in 10 seconds, it
takes 2 seconds for each wave to pass.

T = 2 seconds

If a wave takes two seconds to pass, then ½ of a wave

passes each second.

The frequency is ½ wave per second or

f = 0.5 Hz
In the right graph, the wave is shown as a function of time, and the time
between peaks is the period (T)

In the left graph, the wave is shown as a function of distance, and the
distance between peaks is the wavelength (λ)

From this we can calculate how fast do light waves move.

In one complete cycle, the wave travels a distance (λ) during a time
period T. 
Hence c   f
T
Where c is the speed of light in a vacuum.
 Speed of a wave

The speed of a wave (c) is given:

 1
c with f  c f
T T
Example
The wavelength of a wave is λ = 0.80 m and the
frequency f = 0.5 Hz

What is the speed of the wave?

Solution:
v = λ f = (0.80 m)(0.5 Hz)= 0.4 m/s

The speed of light in vacuum is:

c = λ f = 299 792 458 m/s

Example 2.4

The broadcast frequency of a radio station is 88.5 MHz.

What is the wavelength of the radio waves from the station?

Solution:
c f
Solving for λ
c 3 x 108 m / s
  6
 3.39 m
f 88.5 x 10 Hz
 Exercises
1. Calculate the frequency and time period of light
emanating from Nd: YAG laser with 1.06 µm
wavelength.

Ans: 283 THz

2. One of the prominent frequencies of an argon-ion laser

is about 584 THz. What is the wavelength of the laser
light. Is it visible? If so, what may be its approximate
color?

Ans: λ = 513 nm, Visible: Green

Fig. 2.1 illustrates the displacement of a wave as a function
of time and as a function of space (distance)

In both cases, the displacement is described by a

sine function

The equation of the top graph is: y 

  2𝜋 𝑡
The phase is calculated: 𝜙 =
𝑇
Phase is the position of a point in time (an y 
instant) on a waveform cycle
Phase is the position of a point in time (an instant) on a waveform
cycle. A complete cycle is defined as the interval required for the
waveform to return to its arbitrary initial value. The graph to the right
shows how one cycle constitutes 360° of phase. The graph also shows
how phase is sometimes expressed in radians, where one radian of
phase equals approximately 57.3°.

Phase difference equal to zero. The circle on the left shows how one
cycle constitutes 360° of phase. The wave on the right shows the
corresponding phase difference

Phase can also be an expression of relative displacement between two

corresponding features (for example, peaks or zero crossings) of two
waveforms having the same frequency.
Phase(ϕ) refers to a particular point on a wave

A sine wave has its maximum at a phase of 900 and is zero

at a phase of 1800

Phase shift means sliding the wave to the left or right of

its original position
y  A sin(kz  t  )
When a wave has the value A at the origin, the phase shift
is 

2
  
At t = 0 and x = 0 y  A sin  k z   t    A sin    A
 2 2
 The phase can be expressed in frequency:

y  A sin  2 f t  or y  A sin  2  t 

The angular frequency is   2 f or   2 

The equation of a wave as a function of time can be

written as:
y  A sin(  t )

The unit of angular frequency is radians per second or Hz

The equation of a wave as a function of distance can be
written:
 2 z 
y  A sin  
  

  2𝜋 𝑧
The phase is calculated: 𝜙 = 𝜆

2
The propagation constant is: k

Then: y  A sin( k z )
y  A sin(  t ) describes a harmonic wave in time and

y  A sin( k z ) describes a harmonic wave in space

Traveling waves oscillate in both space and time

The general equation for a harmonic wave is then:

y  A sin( k z   t )
Example 2.2
The amplitude, wavelength and frequency of a harmonic
wave were found to be
A = 0.15 m, λ = 0.80 m and f = 0.5 Hz
What is the equation for the harmonic wave?

Solution:
2 2
k   7.85 m 1
 0.8 m
  2 f  2 (0.5 Hz)  3.14 Hz

So the equation of the harmonic wave is:

y  0.15 sin( 7.85 z  3.14 t )
 Derivation of the Equation
of Harmonic Waves
The time dependence of a simple harmonic motion can be
described as a projection of a point that moves with constant
angular speed around a circle

At any point in time the position of the projection is given

by:
y  A sin 

The angular velocity is given by: 
t
  2
   2 f
t T

The time dependence of the harmonic wave is given by:

y  A sin( 2 ft )
To derive the space dependence of a simple harmonic wave
we change the time and frequency dependence into
distance (x) and wavelength (λ) dependence
z z z z
v f v f  f  ft
t t t 

 2 
y  A sin  z
  

The next step is to make the wave move

By Fourier analysis it is possible to synthesize any
functional form by a superposition of harmonics

To give f a definite form it is most convenient to

choose sine or cosine

We can write

E  E0 sin( kz  t )

where E0 is the amplitude of the electric field

A pulse moving in both space and time is represented by:
f ( z, t )

We assume the pulse does not change shape as it moves

Now consider a second coordinate system that moves with

the pulse at speed v

In this reference frame the pulse is at rest f (z ' )

f ( z ' )  f ( z  vt )
  2 
Using this transformation y  A sin  ( z  vt ) 
  

 2 
y  A sin  ( z   ft ) 
  
 2 
y  A sin  z  2 ft 
  

y  A sin( kz  t )
We study here the wave nature of light, which is described
by solutions of Maxwell’s wave equations

Light is an electromagnetic wave, where electric (E) and magnetic (B)

fields are oscillating

The E and H field vectors are oriented at right angles to each other
and the direction of propagation

No medium is required to support the electromagnetic field

A light wave can travel in a vacuum, a sound wave not

A changing electric field generates a changing magnetic field and a

changing magnetic field generates an changing
electric field

This is the way how a light wave propagates

 Fig. 2.2

Fig. 2.2 represents an electromagnetic wave with the

electric field (E) in the y-direction, the magnetic field (H)
in the z-direction, and wave propagation in the x-direction
 Electromagnetic Theory
This theory says light travels in waves.

Classical electromagnetism is summarized by Maxwell’s

equations

Maxwell’s equations are derived from experimentally

determined relationships

These are Gauss’s laws, Faraday’s law and Ampere’s law

Gauss’s laws describe electrostatics and magnetostatics

Faraday’s law describes electrodynamics and Ampere’s law

describes magnetodynamics
 Maxwell equations
Maxwell's Equations are a set of 4 complicated equations that
describe the world of electromagnetics. These equations describe
how electric and magnetic fields propagate, interact, and how they
are influenced by objects.

They're how we can model an electromagnetic wave—also known

as light

The four fundamental equations for electricity and magnetism.

Maxwell didn’t write down these equations in this form. He didn’t

know vector notation

In this form the equations were written down by Heaviside

The four Maxwell equations in differential form
D  
B  0
B
xE
t
D
xH J
t
Symbols Used
E = Electric field ρ = charge density i = electric current
B = Magnetic field ε0 = permittivity J = current density
D = Electric
μ0 = permeability c = speed of light
displacement
 Gauss’s Law (Integral form)
This law describes electrostatics and states that the
total electric flux Φ through any closed surface equals
the net charge  qn inside the surface
n

It can be also expressed

   D  dS    dV
V

D  0 E
D is the electric displacement and
ρ the volume charge density
ε0 is the permittivity in free space (the ability of a substance to store
electrical energy in an electric field)
 Gauss’s Law for Electricity
Gauss' Law is the first of Maxwell's Equations which dictates how the
Electric Field behaves around electric charges.

This law describes electrostatics

It states that the total electric flux Φ through any closed surface equals
the net charge inside the surface
.
D  
It can be written in terms of the Electric Flux Density and the Electric
Charge Density as: 
E 
0 the ability of a substance to store electrical
Where D   0 E energy in an electric field.

D is the electric displacement and

ρ the volume charge density
ε0 is the permittivity in free space
 Gauss’s Law for Electricity
Starting from Gauss’ Law in integral form, we can derive Gauss’ Law
in differential form.
To do this, we assume some arbitrary volume (we'll call it V) which
has a boundary (which is written S). Then integrating Equation [1]
over the volume V gives Gauss' Law in integral form:

Hence 1
 s E  dS   0 V
  dV
  
Applying Divergence theorem  s
F  ds     FdV
V
    
D   or E 
0
 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism
The equation states that there is no net magnetic flux
(which can be thought of as the number of magnetic field
lines through an area) that passes through an arbitrary closed
surface S.

This means the number of magnetic field lines that enter and
exit through this closed surface is the same.
B  0
B is the magnetic flux density,

This is the second of Maxwell’s equations

 The magnetostatic equivalent of Gauss’s law is

 B  dS  0
S

B  0 H
stating that the magnetic flux
leaving a closed surface is zero, indicating the absence of
isolated magnetic monopoles

µ0 is the permeability of free space (measure of the resistance of a

material against the formation of a magnetic field)

Applying the divergence theorem gives the differential form

B  0
0 is the permittivity or dielectric constant of free space

It represents the ratio of the unit charge (As) to the unit field
strength (Vm) and amounts to 8.859 x 10-12 [As/Vm]

0 is the absolute permeability of free space

It gives the context between the unit of an induced voltage

(V) due to the presence of a magnetic field H of unit [Am/s]

It amounts to 1.256 x 10-6 [Vs/Am]

 Faraday’s Law
The electric and magnetic fields are linked by Faraday’s law
of electromagnetic induction and Ampere’s law

Faraday’s law states that an electromagnetic field generated

in a closed contour is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux that it encloses

c E  dl  t S B  dS
Applying Stokes theorem gives Faraday’s law in differential
form
  
 c

F  dl     F dS
s

 Faraday’s Law

c E  dl  t S B  dS
Applying Stokes theorem gives Faraday’s law in differential
form
  
 c

F  dl     F dS
s


  B
 E  
t
 Faraday’s Law
Faraday's law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism
predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric
circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF)

He figured out that a changing Magnetic Flux within a circuit

(or closed loop of wire) produced an induced EMF, or voltage
within the circuit. He wrote this as:

   B
EMF    E  
t t
Changing magnetic flux produces an electric field
 Ampere’s Law
Ampere’s law states that the integral of the magnetic
field around a closed contour is proportional to the
current enclosed by the contour

  
c H  dl  S  J  t D   dS

J is the conduction current density and D the displacement
current

The displacement current was introduced by Maxwell

for symmetrical reason to match Faraday’s law
 Ampere’s Law
Suppose you have a conductor (wire) carrying a current, I.
Then this current produces a Magnetic Field which circles the
wire.

Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition describes the

relationship between magnetic field circulating around
electric currents and time varying electric fields. 
   D
 H  dl  I
c
encl  H  J 
t
Electric current and changing electric flux produces a magnetic
field
Applying Stokes’ theorem yields the differential form of
Faraday’s law
B
xE
t

and the differential form of Ampere’s law

D
xHJ
t
Ampere’s law represents the third and Faraday’s law
the fourth of Maxwell’s equations
Differential Form Integral Form

1
D    s E  dS   0 V
  dV

B  0
 s
B  dS  0
B 
xE
t c E  dl  t S B  dS
D   
xH J
t c H  dl  S  J  t D   dS
 Maxwell’s Wave Equations
Maxwell’s equations will be considered for a vacuum in
order to obtain the simplest form of the EM wave
equation and also to demonstrate that the waves require
no medium to support their existence. in that case the
equationsbecomes:
 
D   E 
0

B  0 H  0
B H  B
xE  x E   0  x D   0
t t t
D E E
xH  x H  0  x B   0 0
t t t
 Maxwell’s Equations
  Q
D   s E  dA   0

B  0  B  dA  0
s

B   
xE c E  dl   t s B  ds
t

D   
xH c H  dl  S  J  t D   dS
t
 Maxwell’s Wave Equations
The wave equation can be deduced for either the electric
or the magnetic field

For the electric field we take the curl of Faraday’s Law

 B 
 x  x E   x  
 t 
 

   2
 x  x E   0  x H    0 0 2 E
t t

The conduction current J = 0 in free space

  
      2 
Using the vector identity  F    F  F
with   E  0 in free space we get
 2
 E   0 0 2 E
2

t
1  2
 E 2 2E
2

c t

where c is the speed of light or phase velocity

1
c
 0 0
The Maxwell wave equation has infinite solutions

The solution which is relevant depends on the

boundary conditions
 Solution for the Electric Field
For the one-dimensional wave equation
2 2
d E 1 d E
2
 2 2
dz c dt
The simplest solution is E  f (kz  t )
 2 1
with c  k   2  
k  T
z is the direction of propagation
 Particle nature of light
Quantum mechanics tells us that light can behave simultaneously
as a particle or a wave. 

We study here the particle nature of light.

Light is considered as particles.

When light interacts with matter, it behaves like a stream of

particles (photons).

A light particle has a distinct level of energy, and each such

individual particle is called a photon. (A photon is the smallest
division of light)
 photoelectric effect.
Experimental evidence that light consists of photons comes from
a phenomenon called the photoelectric effect, in which electrons
are emitted from a metal surface when light shines on it.
 photoelectric effect

When light is incident on certain metallic surfaces,

electrons are emitted from the surface
* This is called the photoelectric effect
* The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons

The effect was first discovered by Hertz

The successful explanation of the effect was given by
Einstein in 1905
Received Nobel Prize in 1921 for paper on electromagnetic
radiation, of which the photoelectric effect was a part
 photoelectric effect.

*When light strikes E,

photoelectrons are
emitted

*Electrons collected at C
and passing through the
ammeter create a
current in the circuit
 photoelectric effect.

The explanation of the photoelectric effect was proposed

by Einstein 1905

Light striking the metal is a stream of particles later

called photons

The energy of each photon is: E  hf

h is called the Planck's constant 6.626 x 10-34 joule seconds
Example
The frequency of helium neon laser light is 4.74 x 1014 Hz.
Calculate the energy of one photon.

Solution:

E = h f = (6.626 x 10-34 J sec) (4.74 x 1014 Hz)

E = 3.14 x 10-19 joules

 Example
In converting electrical energy into light energy, a 60 W
Incandescent bulb operates at about 2.1 % efficiency.
Assuming that all the light is green light, determine the ff:

a) energy of a single photon

b) the number of photons per second given off by the bulb

Solution:
E = h f = (6.626 x 10-34 J sec) (5.41 x 1014 Hz)

E = 3.58 x 10-19 joules

 Example

(b) The number of photons emitted per second can be found by

dividing the amount of light energy emitted per second by the
energy E of one photon

At an efficiency of 2.1%, the light energy emitted per second by a

sixty-watt bulb is 

(0.021)(60.0 J/s) = 1.3 J/s

Because photon energy is so small it is expressed in
electron volts (eV)

An electron volt is the energy gained by an electron

when it is accelerated through a potential difference
of 1 volt

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 joules

h = 4.14 x 10-15 eV sec

energy of a photon of a helium neon laser: 1.96 eV

Energy of a photon in terms of the wavelength:
hc
E


Photon energy is inversely proportional to the wavelength

Photons of UV or blue light have more energy than photons

of red light
 photoelectric effect.
When light shines on a metal, a photon can give up its energy to an
Electron in that metal.

If the photon has enough energy to do the work of removing the electron
from the metal, the electron can be ejected. The work required depends
on how strongly the electron is held.

For the least strongly held electrons, the necessary work has a minimum

value W0  and is called the work function of the metal

The minimum energy required to remove the least strongly

held electrons is called the work function.

hf
  KE max  Wo If a photon has energy in excess of the
    work needed to remove an electron, the
Photon Maximum Minimum
energy kineticenergy work needed to excess appears as kinetic energy of the
of ejected electron eject electron ejected electron
 photoelectric effect.

KE max  hf
  Wo
 
Maximum Photon Minimum
kineticenergy energy work needed to
of ejected electron eject electron

Photons with frequency less that f0 don’t have sufficient energy to eject
an electron from the metal
 photoelectric effect.
Example: The Photoelectric Effect for a Silver Surface

The work function for a silver surface is 4.73 eV. Find the minimum
frequency that light must have to eject electrons from the surface.

hf o  KE max  Wo

0 J

Wo  4.73 eV  1.60 10 19 J eV 

fo   34
 1 .14  1015
Hz
h 6.626 10 J  s
Energy Levels in Atoms
Niels Bohr proposed that the atoms have a positive nucleus
surrounded by negative electrons existing in different
quantized energy levels

Electrons can gain or loose energy by jumping from one

energy level to another
The minimum energy level in an atom is called the
ground state

The energy of the ground state is not zero, but has a

minimum allowable value

The higher energy levels are called excited states

When an atom absorbs energy the electrons jump from a
lower energy level to a higher energy level

The amount of energy absorbed must be equal to the

difference between two energy levels

When the electrons return from a higher energy state to a

lower energy state they emit photons with energies equal
to the energy difference of the two states
Energy levels are shown in a diagram as horizontal lines

Transitions between energy levels are shown as arrows

When the blue photon is absorbed it

excites the atom and lifts an electron
from state E1 to state E3

The energy of the blue photon is equal

to the energy difference between E1
and E3
Fig. 2.4 a
 When the atom makes a transition
from state E3 to state E2 which means
one electron returns from state E3 to
state E2, a red photon is given off with
an energy E3 – E2

The energy of the red photon is less

than the energy of the blue photon
Fig. 2.4 b

The atom is still in an excited state and will return to the

ground state at a later stage
Figure 2.5 shows some of the energy levels of the
hydrogen atom

By convention the ionized energy level is: E = 0

The ionization energy is the amount of energy needed to

free an electron originally in the ground state

The energy levels of the bound electron have negative values

The energy of the ground state is: E = -13.6 eV

Shown are the Lyman series in the UV, the Balmer series in
the visible and the Paschen series in the infrared
Fig. 2.6a

The emission spectrum shows the Balmer series

The photons are in the visible range

red (656 nm), green-blue (486 nm)

violet (434 nm and 410 nm)
 Fig. 2.6b

If light containing all visible wavelengths (white light) is

passed through hydrogen, it emerges exhibiting an
absorption spectrum

The visible part of the spectrum will contain all

wavelengths except the four lines absorbed by the
hydrogen gas
The spectra are different for all the elements and can be
used to identify them

To observe the emission spectrum of hydrogen, the

hydrogen atoms must be excited

This can be achieved in a glow discharge

The brightness of the different spectral lines varies

Emission lines starting from metastable states which

have lifetimes of milliseconds are less probable and
therefore weaker than emission lines arising from levels
with a short lifetime of nanoseconds
Fig. 2.7 Emission lines of hydrogen (top) and helium (bottom)
So far we have discussed electronic transmission lines

Gas molecules contain also quantised vibrational and

rotational energy levels which emit light in the infrared

In liquids and solids the discrete energy levels of single

atoms are influenced by neighbouring atoms the levels
spread out into energy bands

The emission and absorption spectra of gases at low

pressure are sharp lines, solids and liquids generate
continuous wide bands
The energies of electronic transitions are in the order of eV,
which is the visible light

The energies of vibrational transitions are in the order of

a tenth of an eV, which is in the infrared

The energies of rotational transitions are in the order of

a hundreds of an eV, which are radiowaves
 Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
Fluorescence describes a process in which a higher energy
photons are absorbed and lower energy photons are emitted

Inside a fluorescence light tube a gas is excited by high

voltage to emit UV photons

The coating on the inside of the tube absorbs the

UV photons and emits lower energy visible photons

Energy saving fluorescence bulbs emit white light which

is composed of several bands from different regions of
the visible spectrum
Phosphorescent materials have an excited state with a long
lifetime that allows them to glow for a long time after the
excitation source is removed

In a large collection of excited phosphorescent atoms,

many will return to the ground state very quickly, but
some will remain in the excited state for a fairly long
period of time

Glow-in-the-dark toys and clothing are examples of

phosphorescence
Blackbody Radiation

A blackbody is an object that absorbs all incident light at

every wavelength, so it appears black to the eye

It is a perfect absorber and also a perfect emitter of radiation

The spectral distribution of a blackbody depends only on

the temperature and not on the material the blackbody is
made of
Fig. 2.8 The blackbody spectrum
Fig. 2.8 illustrates the blackbody radiation spectral
distribution for four Kelvin temperatures

The vertical dashed lines mark the visible spectrum, and the
dashed curve connecting the peaks of the four curves
illustrates Wien’s displacement law

3
 maxT  2.897 x 10 m K
As the temperature increases more radiation is emitted at
all wavelengths and the wavelength of maximum brightness
shifts to shorter wavelengths

When the heating element of an electric stove is first

turned on it feels warm, all the radiation is in the infrared
as the element grows hotter, it glows dull red, then bright red,
orange-red, yellow-orange, and at temperatures over
2000 0C yellowish-white
Classical physics assumed the radiation emitted by a heated
object was due to microscopic charged oscillators that acted
like tiny antennas

The distribution of oscillator energy was assumed to be

continuous

This was known as Rayleigh-Jeans law

Energy density per unit frequency:

8  3 2 η is the refractive index

u ( )  3
kT k Boltzmann constant
c 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
At long wavelengths the formula agreed with experimental
results

However, at short wavelengths the predicted energy density

tended to go to infinity contrary to experimental results

The predictions were so far off that the effect was termed
“ultraviolet catastrophe”

Max Planck assumed that the energy of the oscillators must

be quantized and derived the correct formula which agreed
with the observed spectral distribution of the blackbody
radiation
Planck’s formula for the spectral energy density distribution
of the blackbody radiation per unit frequency:

8 h 3 3
u ( )  3 h / kT
c e 1 
Measurement of light
 Radiometry and Photometry
For light two sets of measurements are used:

Radiometric units, which apply throughout the entire

electromagnetic spectrum and

Photometric units, which apply only to visible light and are

dependent on the colour response of the human eye

Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring 

electromagnetic radiation, including visible light.
Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the
distribution of the radiation's power in space, as opposed to 
photometric techniques, which characterize
the light's interaction with the human eye. 
Radiometric Measurements
The International System of units has approved seven
radiometric terms
Five are listed here:
term
Term Symbol Description Unit
Radiant Energy E (or U or Q) Energy Joule (J)
Radiant Power P (or F) Energy per unit time J/s or watt
(W)
Radiant Exitance M Power emitted per W/m2
unit area of a source
Irradiance E (or Ec) Power falling on a W/m2
unit area of a target
Radiant Intensity I Source power radiated W/sr
per unit solid angle
 Radiant Exitance and Irradiance

The radiant exitance (M) is the amount of power per unit area
that radiates from a source

The unit is W/m2

The irradiance is the amount of power per unit area that is

absorbed by a target

The unit is also W/m2

Example
A globe lamp rated at 40 watts is 8 cm in diameter
Find the radiant exitance (M)
(Ignore the metal base and assume the bulb radiates over
its entire spherical surface
Solution

The surface area of the bulb is given by the formula for the
surface area of a sphere
A  4 r  4 (0.04 m)  0.02 m
2 2 2

The radiant exitance is:

40W W
M 2
 2000 2
0.02 m m
Example

A helium neon laser has an output power of 2 mW and

makes a 1 cm diameter spot on a wall four meters from the
laser output aperture
Find the irradiance (E) at the wall due to the laser

Solution
The area of the circular spot of light is given by:

A   r 2   (0.005 m) 2  7.85 x 10 5 m 2
The irradiance is then:
P 2 x 10 3W W
E  5 2
 25.5 2
A 7.85 x 10 m m
Intensity
In radiometry, intensity is the power emitted by a point
source into a cone of a given solid angle

Radian is an angle drawn at the center

of a circle that sweeps out an arc of
length “s”

The measure of the angle in radians is the arc length

divided by the radius of the circle
s

3600 is equivalent to 2π radians r
 Now consider a sphere
A solid angle subtends an area on
the surface

The measure of the solid angle in steradians (sr) is given

by the area subtended divided by the radius of the
sphere square A
 2
r
A sphere subtends a solid angle of 4π sr
Example 2.8
What solid angle is subtended by a 10 cm2 area circle on
the surface of a balloon 50 cm in diameter?
By the entire balloon surface?
Solution
The solid angle subtended by the circle is
A 10 cm 2
 2  2
 0.016 sr
r (25 cm)
The solid angle subtended by the entire surface is
A 4 r 2
  2  2  4 [ sr ]
r r
The radiant intensity is the amount of power emitted by a
point source into a given solid angle

P P
I 
 4

The units of radiant intensity are watts/sr

(watts per steradian)
Example 2.9
Derive the inverse square law of radiation for a point
source of light
Solution
P
From I we get P  4 I
4

The surface area of a sphere is: A  4 r 2

Substituting these two expressions into the definition

of irradiance

P 4 I I
E E  2
A 4 r 2
r
Photometric Units

Photometry applies only to visible light

It takes into account the wavelength response of the

human eye
 The spectral response of the human eye

Luminous efficiency is a measure of how

Figure 2 well a light source produces visible light
The spectral response of the human eye is plotted in
fig. 2

The peak of the curve is at 555 nm (yellow-green)

This is the wavelength peak intensity of the human eye at

daylight

If red, green and blue light of equal radiant power are

observed by the human eye, the green will appear much
brighter than either the red or the blue
A similar curve for night time vision has the wavelength
peak shifted by 50 nm to the short wavelength end

Photometric units are related to radiometric units through

the luminous efficiency of the eye

A radiant power of 1 watt at the peak wavelength of 555 nm

corresponds to a luminous power of 683 lumen (lm)
At other wavelengths, the luminous power is 683 lm times
the luminous efficiency from the curve

For example, 1 watt of radiant power at 650 nm, where the

luminous efficiency is 11% is (0.11) (683 lm) = 75 lm

In general

Luminous unit = Luminous efficiency x 683 x Radiant unit

termol
Term Symbol Description Unit
Luminous QV Luminous Energy talbot
Energy
Luminous Power PV or fV Luminous Energy per unit Lumen (lm)
time = talbot/s
Luminous MV Luminous Power emitted lumen/m2
Exitance per unit area of a source
Illuminance EV Luminous Power falling Lux (lx)
on a unit area of a target = lumen/m2

Luminous IV Luminous Source power candela (cd)

Intensity radiated per unit solid = lumen/sr
angle
Termtermol Symbol Radiant Term/Unit
Luminous Energy QV Radiant Energy/joule
Luminous Power PV or fV Radiant Power/watt
Luminous Exitance MV Radiant exitance watt/m2
Illuminance EV Irradiance watt/m2
Luminous Intensity IV Radiant intensity watt/sr
Luminous units corresponding to radiant units of Table 2.1
are shown in Table 2.2

Luminous units have the subscript v, to indicate the

dependence on human visual response

Luminous power is given in lumen, the electrical power in

watt

A 60 watt incandescent bulb, labelled 840 lumens has an

efficiency of 14 lumens/watt

The next two examples illustrate the relationship between

radiant and luminous units
Example 2.10
An orange 30 watt light bulb is 3 meters from the wall

Calculate the luminous power. Assume the wavelength is

610 nm and that all the energy is emitted as orange light
Solution
From the CIE curve, the luminous efficiency at 610 nm
is 0.5 (50%). The luminous power is given by:

Luminous power = Radiant power x 683 x 0.5

= 30 watts x 683 x 0.5 = 10300 lumens

How would the answer change if the bulb were blue or red?
Example 2.11

Calculate the irradiance and illuminance of a 30 W orange

light bulb at 610 nm at a distance of 3 m from the wall.
Assume the bulb emits only orange light
Solution

At a distance of 3 m from the wall the bulb may be

considered a point source , emitting light over a sphere of
radius 3 m
P 30 W W
The irradiance is: E   0.27 2
4 r 2
4(3 m) 2
m
W lm
The illuminance is: EV  0.27 2 x 683 x 0.5  92 2  92 lux
m m
 References

1. History of Optics in
Hecht, E. Optics 4th Edition, San Francisco:
Addison Wesley 2002

2. Quantum physics at non-calculus level in

Jerry D. Wilson and Anthony J. Buffa,
College Physics, 5/E,
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2003

3.
http://www.maxwells-equations.com/index.php#
maxwells
3. Five scientists’ answer to the question
“What is a photon?” may be found in a special
publication of the Optical Society of America
Roychoudhuri, C. and Roy, R. editors. OPN Trends –
The nature of light. What is a photon?
Optical Society of America, October 2003

4. https://em.geosci.xyz/content/maxwell1_fundamentals/
formative_laws/gauss_magnetic.html
Review Questions

1. What is meant by the term “wavelength”?

Draw a wave to illustrate

2. What is meant by the “period” of a wave?

Give an example

3. What is the speed of light in vacuum?

4. List the electromagnetic spectrum in order of

increasing wavelength (shortest to longest)
5. List the colours of the visible spectrum in order of
decreasing wavelength (longest to shortest)

6. What colours correspond to the following wavelengths:

a. 450 nm
b. 550 nm
c. 650 nm

7. What is an instrument that allows scientists to study

light spectra?
How does it work?

8. Which of the three regions of the “optical spectrum”

(IR, Visible, UV) has the highest energy photons?
The lowest energy photons?
9. What is the difference in appearance between an emission
spectrum and an absorption spectrum?

10. Why do “glow in the dark” toys continue to glow

after the source of energy (light) is removed?

11. All objects not at absolute zero of temperature radiate

blackbody radiation. Since your normal temperature is
98.60F = 370C = 310 Kelvin, you radiate electromagnetic
energy! Explain how firefighters make use of this
radiation to find a person in a smoky room.

12. Figure 2.12 shows the intensity of radiation of three

objects at different very high temperature.
Explain why some stars appear red and others blue
13. The luminous efficiency curve (figure 2.15) is for
daylight vision. In dim light, the peak wavelength of
luminous efficiency is around 510 nm. Why is the peak
efficiency different in bright light and in dim light?
(These are called scotopic and photopic vision)

14. Find an incandescent light bulb and a fluorescent light

bulb and note the electric power (Watts) and the luminous
power (lumens).
Which is more efficient?

15. If you can find an energy saving fluorescent bulb,

compare it to the other two