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Air, Water and Land Pollution: Chromatographic Methods For Environmental Analysis
Air, Water and Land Pollution: Chromatographic Methods For Environmental Analysis
Chapter 10:
Chromatographic Methods for
Environmental Analysis
• Introduction to Chromatography
• Instruments of Chromatographic Methods
• Common Detectors for Chromatography
• Applications of Chromatographic Methods in Environmental
Analysis
• Practical Tips to Chromatographic Methods
Chromatographic Methods…
Chromatographic Methods…
Introduction to Chromatography
e.g. Gas Chromatography (GC), Liquid Chromatography (LC), and Supercritical Fluid
Chromatography (SFC) have gas, liquid and supercritical fluid mobile phases
Chromatographic Methods…
Introduction to Chromatography
• GC – gas mobile phase / liquid stationary phase (GLC) or gas mobile phase / solid
stationary phase (GSC)
LC Columns
• Packed Column: stainless steel tube 3-25 cm long with packing materials inside the
tube
Chromatographic Methods…
Introduction to Chromatography
GC Columns (2 types)
• Packed Column: glass or stainless steel coil (1-5 m long, 5 mm i.d.) filled with
stationary phase or packing coated with stationary phase
• Capillary Column: thin fused-silica tube (10-100 m long, 250 µm i.d.) with stationary
phase inside – tubular structure – no packing material inside, coated inside in one of
3 ways:
Chromatographic Methods…
Introduction to Chromatography
GC Columns (2 types)
• Capillary Column:
• Open tubular structure has low resistance to gas flow, column can be made much
longer (up to 100 m) than packed columns
• e.g. Polydimethyl siloxane: -R groups are all hydrophobic (R = CH3), least polar stationary
phase, other stationary phases contain different functional groups altering their polarity
Chromatographic Methods…
Introduction to Chromatography
• Most liquid chromatography is performed via LLC – partition between liquid mobile
phase and liquid stationary phase (adsorbed or chemical bonded)
• Column related parameters: length, i.d., stationary film thickness, particle size of
packing, etc.)
• Operational parameters: flow velocity of mobile phase, temperature, selection of
mobile phase
Chromatographic Methods…
Introduction to Chromatography
• e.g. size of sample (capacity) increases on using a longer or wider column with a
thicker film of stationary phase
– Increases analytical time
– Improves resolution
Chromatographic Methods…
Introduction to Chromatography
Temperature for GC
• Column temperature is a compromise between speed, sensitivity and resolution
• High temperatures – analytes spend most of their time in the gas mobile phase
(eluted quickly)
– Resolution is poor
– Sensitivity is increased (peaks are closer together)
• Easy parameter to control so not considered as important as choice of column
tm = mobile-phase holdup time – time required for a molecule of the mobile phase to pass
through the column – may be due to air or methanol in GC, or solvent in HPLC
tr = retention time – time taken after sample injection for analyte to reach detector
A = first eluted compound eluted at t = trA
B = second eluted compound eluted at t = trB
Chromatographic Methods…
Introduction to Chromatography
Kc = Cs / Cm
k = Ms / Mm
α = kB = trB – tm
kA trA – tm
• Larger value of α the easier the separation, compounds can only be separated if α >
1.0
Chromatographic Methods…
Introduction to Chromatography
Resolution (R)
• R is the measure of a column’s ability to separate two peaks
Calculate:
Retention
factor (k),
Separation
factor (α), and
Resolution (R)
Chromatographic Methods…
Instruments of Chromatographic Methods
Gas Chromatography
• Components
– Carrier gas
– Flow control
– Sample injection port
– Separation column
– Oven
– Detector
– Data-acquisition system
Chromatographic Methods…
Instruments of Chromatographic Methods
Gas Chromatography
Chromatographic Methods…
Instruments of Chromatographic Methods
Gas Chromatography
• Sample port
– Manual or autosampler
– Sample size is typically very small in GC
– Microsyringe used to introduce gaseous or liquid samples
– Inlet transfers the sample to the column
Chromatographic Methods…
Instruments of Chromatographic Methods
Gas Chromatography
• Components:
– Solvent reservoirs
– Solvent pump
– Sample injection system
– Column (guard and analytical)
– Detector
– Data acquisition system
Chromatographic Methods…
Instruments of Chromatographic Methods
• Solvent reservoir:
– Solvent (neat liquid, mixture, buffered solutions)
– HPLC grade (purity), free from particles and dissolved gases
– Inlet filter inside each solvent container to remove particles
– Degassing unit or degassing unit removes dissolved gases
• Solvent pump:
– High pressure, pulse free, accurate flow rate
– Mobile phase solvent is passed through the column for separation
– Typical pressure 1000-3000 psi
Chromatographic Methods…
Instruments of Chromatographic Methods
• Column:
– Analytical column and guard column
– Guard column contains same packing material as analytical column
• Detector:
– See later: Ultraviolet, differential refractometers, fluorescence, conductivity
Chromatographic Methods…
Instruments of Chromatographic Methods
• Given a set of compounds and a given column, what solvent mixture should be
chosen to maximize separation efficiency?
• Solvent properties?
– Viscosity
– UV cutoff
– Refractive index
– Boiling point
– Polarity
Chromatographic Methods…
Instruments of Chromatographic Methods
• UV cutoff:
– If UV detector is used, solvents should be transparent at required wavelength
• Volatility (Bpt.):
– Important for evaporative light-scattering detectors (refractometers)
– Solvents with high v.p. produce bubbles in the detector
• Polarity:
– More polar solvents cause increased retention in reverse phase HPLC and reduced
retention in normal phase HPLC
Chromatographic Methods…
Instruments of Chromatographic Methods
Ion Chromatography
• Chromeleon software
• Continuous electrolytic
suppression
Chromatographic Methods…
Instruments of Chromatographic Methods
Ion Chromatography
• Separation in IC is based on ion exchange of ionic species rather than partitioning for
HPLC
• Mobile phase, column, stationary phase, and detector are all different from those
used in HPLC
• Type and strength of eluent affects the retention times of ionic analytes
Ion Chromatography
IC uses 2 columns:
• Analytical – separates anions or cations
– If anions (A-) are to be analyzed column contains
cationic exchange resin (+ve charge –N(CH3)3+)
Called anion exchange column
Principles
1. Mobile phase – eluent carries the mixture through the column
2. Stationary phase – compounds adsorb to ion-exchange resin in the column.
Stickier compounds require more elution time
3. Force pushes the mixture through the column – pump
4. Separation depends on retention time (ion charge and size)
Ion Chromatography
• Suppressor removes all buffer ions via ion exchange - Na + replaced by H+, eluent
converted to carbonic acid, then CO2
• Cations are retained in suppressor column and separated anions in their acid form
(HA) are measured using conductivity detector
Kegley, 1998
IC Chart
Conductivity
Conductivity ~ concentration
Compare peak area of unknown with that of a standard
Chromatographic Methods…
Common Detectors for Chromatography
• Detectors:
– Recovers chemical information from column effluent:
Ni63 → β-
β- + N2 → 2e- + N2+
M + e - → M-
Chromatographic Methods…
Common Detectors for Chromatography
• Photo Ionization Detectors (PID): similar to FID, uses UV light for ionization instead of a
flame
• Hall or Electrolytic Conductivity (ELCD): S-, N-, and halogen compounds converted to
ions under a Ni catalyst, conductivity of dissolved ion is measured
Chromatographic Methods…
Common Detectors for Chromatography
Chromatographic Methods…
Common Detectors for Chromatography
Chromatographic Methods…
Common Detectors for Chromatography
Chromatographic Methods…
Common Detectors for Chromatography
ECD sensitive to
TCD and MS detect all halogen compounds
UV Detectors
Fluorescence Detectors
Fluorescence Detectors
• Not universal, limited to certain chemicals
• Typically 1 order of magnitude more sensitive than UV
• Most intense fluorescence is found in aromatic compounds
e.g. PAHs
Chromatographic Methods…
Common Detectors for Chromatography
• Conductance (G) (ohm-1 or mho) measured between two electrodes of area A (cm2) and
spacing L (cm) is the reciprocal of resistance R (ohms)
G = 1/R
Chromatographic Methods…
Common Detectors for Chromatography
G = 1/R
k = GK
Λ = 1000 k
Cz
k = GK
Λ = 1000 k
Cz
G = ΛCz / 1000K
• Conductivity detector: for a given ion (constant Λ and z), the conductance G is
proportional to C
Chromatographic Methods…
Common Detectors for Chromatography
• Direct analysis:
– Gases
– Volatile compounds
– Semivolatile compounds
• Sample may require extraction and clean-up steps depending on matrix (chp. 7)
Chromatographic Methods…
Applications of Chromatographic Methods in Environmental Analysis
Volatile
Volatile
volatile
volatile
Highly
Semi-
Non-
X(aq) ⇌ X(g) KH= P (atm)
M (mol/L)
Many pollutants have low VP but high KH,
1. Determination of toxic organic compounds in air (TO series): sampled by absorbent trap made of
Tenax, molecular sieve, activated charcoal, XAD-2 resin, or graphited carbon, desorption by thermal or
solvent. VOCs analyzed via GC-FID, GC-ECD, or GC-MS
2. Water/wastewater:
500 series (1988) published to support Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. Low concentrations in drinking
water. 12 methods total, 6 for VOCs and 6 for specific synthetic organics and pesticides. 5 use purge-
and-trap, 6 use L-L extraction, 1 uses L-S extraction.
600 Series published for Clean Water Act and National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES). 624 – GC/MS for purgable organic compounds (includes compounds from 601, 602, 603,
612)
625 – Semivolatile organics (includes compounds from 604, 606, 607, 609, 610, 611, 612)
608 – Pesticides and PCBs
613 – Dioxin
Chromatographic Methods…
Applications of Chromatographic Methods in Environmental Analysis
3. Waste:
8000 series published in SW-846 (test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste), all use a variety
of detectors, constantly updated year to year.
Chromatographic Methods…
Applications of Chromatographic Methods in Environmental Analysis
• 85% of known organics are not sufficiently volatile or stable enough to be analyzed
via GC
Chromatographic Methods…
Applications of Chromatographic Methods in Environmental Analysis
• 85% of known organics are not sufficiently volatile or stable enough to be analyzed
via GC
• HPLC should have greater potential for analysis
• Number of HPLC methods developed by US EPA is significantly fewer than GC
– GC has many more detectors
– HPLC more expensive
– More trouble shooting is required
Chromatographic Methods…
Applications of Chromatographic Methods in Environmental Analysis
1. Determination of toxic organic compounds in air (TO series): aldehyde, ketone, phogene, phenol, cresols, formaldehyde and PAHs
2. Water/wastewater:
500 series (1988) published to support Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. Low concentrations in drinking water.
600 Series published for Clean Water Act and National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).
605: Benzidines and 610: PAHS
3. Waste:
8000 series published in SW-846 (test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste), all use a variety of detectors, constantly updated year to year.
Carbonyl compounds, acrylamide, acrylonitrile, acrolein, N-methylcarbamates, nitroaromatics, nitramines, tetrazene, nitroglycerine
US EPA method 300 for Cl-, F-, NO3-, NO2-, PO43-, SO42- in water
US EPA method 9056 and 7199 for anions in waste
• All gases and volatile compounds can be analyzed via GC not by HPLC
• Nonvolatiles and thermally unstable compounds cannot be analyzed via GC unless
their structures are changed through derivatization
• For some semivolatile compounds (e.g. PAHs, nitroaromatics and explosives) both
GC and HPLC can be used
• HPLC is preferred when direct analysis of aqueous sample is needed to avoid time
consuming extractions
• In other cases, GC is instrument of choice due to variety of detection methods
Chromatographic Methods…
Practical Tips to Chromatographic Methods
• Advantages of GC:
– Low cost, fast analysis, ease of operation
– More sensitive and higher resolution
– Variety of columns and detectors
– Can use mass spectrometry (see chp. 12)
• Advantages of HPLC:
– Direct analysis of aqueous samples (can’t be done on GC)
– Mobile phases of various polarities provide versatility
• HPLC is usually more expensive, less sensitive and slower, operationally more
problematic hardware
Chromatographic Methods…
Practical Tips to Chromatographic Methods
• p280-284
Chromatographic Methods…
Practical Tips to Chromatographic Methods
11. Explain why resolution and speed of analysis is always a compromise during a
chromatographic analysis
26. Describe the principles of measuring anions in water by anionic ion-chromatography with
Na2CO3-NaHCO3 as the eluting solvents.
31. Describethe following: (a) What chemical functionalities will contribute fluorescence and
can be measured by fluorescence detetcors? (b) How halogen substitution affects a
compound’s ability to fluoresce?
35. For the following compound and the sample matrix, which chromatographic instrument
(GC, HPLC, IC) and detetcor would you recommend? Suggest an EPA standard method for
each chemical as well.
(a) trichloroethene (volatile) in air, (b) PAHs in solid wastes, (c) BTEX in soil, (d) acid rain
composition (sulfate, nitrate, chloride), (e) species of chromium (Cr6+) in water.