SQL &

Database
Management
SQL
Data Types

DDL & DML

Constraints

Operators

Clauses

Functions

Stored Procedures

Subquery Types

Indexing
Data Types

INT, BIT, DECIMAL, DATE, TIME, DATE TIME. CHAR, VARCHAR,

NUMERIC, MONEY,
FLOAT, REAL
Data Definition Language (DDL)
1) CREATE – is used to create the database or its objects (like table, index, function, views,
store procedure and triggers).

2) DROP – is used to delete objects from the database.

3) ALTER-is used to alter the structure of the database.

4) TRUNCATE–is used to remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the
records are removed.

5) COMMENT –is used to add comments to the data dictionary.

6) RENAME –is used to rename an object existing in the database.

Data Manipulation Language (DML)
1) INSERT – is used to insert data into a table.
INSERT INTO Student (ROLL_NO, NAME, Age) VALUES (‘5′,’PRATIK’,’19’);

2) UPDATE – is used to update existing data within a table.

UPDATE Student SET NAME = 'PRATIK', ADDRESS = 'SIKKIM' WHERE ROLL_NO = 1;

3) DELETE – is used to delete records from a database table.

DELETE FROM Student WHERE NAME = 'Ram’;

4) SELECT – is used to select records from a database table.

SELECT FROM Student WHERE NAME = ‘Mridul';
Constraints – Part 1
o SQL constraints are used to specify rules for data in a table.

o Create Table Constraint - specified with CREATE or ALTER TABLE statements.

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column1 datatype NOT NULL UNIQUE,

column2 datatype UNIQUE,

column3 datatype NOT NULL,

);
Constraints – Part 2
 NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

 UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different

 PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. uniquely identifies each table
row
 FOREIGN KEY - Prevents actions that would destroy links between tables

 CHECK - Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a specific condition

 DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column if no value is specified

 CREATE INDEX - Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly
 Operators
Arithmetic
+ : Adds both operands
- : Subtract the right-hand from the
left-hand operand
* : Multiply both operands
/ : Divide the left-hand by the right-
hand operand
% : Divide the left-hand operand by
the right-hand operand and returns
remainder.
Comparison
= : if two operands are equal
!= & <> : if two operands are
unequal
> : if left operand is more than right
< : if left operand is less than right
>= : if left operand is more than or
equal to right
<= : if left operand is less than or
equal to right operand
Logical
AND : allow multiple conditions in
SQL statements.
BETWEEN : search for values within a
range.
IN : compare if a value exists in a list of
values.
EXISTS : search for a row's presence in
a table.
LIKE : compare a value to similar
values using wildcard operator.
 Clauses
GROUP BY
Used to arrange identical data
into groups
Follows the WHERE in SELECT
statement
Precedes the ORDER BY in
SELECT statement.
Used with aggregate function.
HAVING
Used to specify a search
condition for a group or an
aggregate.
Used in a GROUP BY.
If not using GROUP BY then
you can use HAVING
function like a WHERE
clause.
ORDER BY
Sorts the result in ascending or
descending order.
Ascending order is default.
DESC is used for sorting in
descending order and ASC is
used for sorting in ascending
order
Functions
Aggregate Scalar
Return a single value, calculated from values in a column. Return a single value, based on the input value
AVG() - Returns the average value specified.

COUNT() - Returns the number of rows UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case

FIRST() - Returns the first value LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case

LAST() - Returns the last value MID() - Extract characters from a text field

MAX() - Returns the largest value LEN() - Returns the length of a text field
MIN() - Returns the smallest value ROUND() - Rounds numeric field to certain decimals
SUM() - Returns the sum NOW() - Returns the current system date and time
Stored Procedures
o If you have an SQL query that you want to write & execute over and over again, save it as a
stored procedure, and then just call it.
o You can also pass parameters to a stored procedure, so that the stored procedure can act based
on the parameter value(s) passed.

CREATE PROCEDURE SP_PROC_NAME AS

SELECT * FROM Customers

GO;

EXEC SP_PROC_NAME;
 Subquery Types
Single Row
Returns single row output.
Single row comparison operators,
with WHERE conditions.
SELECT dept_id, MIN (salary)
FROM tblEmployees GROUP
BY dept_id HAVING MIN
(salary) < (SELECT AVG
(salary) FROM tblEmployees)
Multiple Row
Returns multiple row output.
Multiple row comparison
operators like IN.
SELECT name, dept_id FROM
tblEmployees WHERE dept_id
IN (SELECT dept_id FROM
tblDept WHERE LOCATION
= ‘Delhi’)
Correlated
Depend on data provided by the
outer query
Use EXISTS operator to
SELECT EMPLOYEE_ID,
salary, dept_id FROM
tblEmployees E WHERE salary >
(SELECT AVG(salary) FROM
tblEmployees T WHERE
E.dept_id = T.dept_id)
Indexing
• Indexes are used to retrieve data from the table faster.

• Users cannot see them, they are just there to speed up searches/queries.

• Updating a table with indexes takes more time than a table without

• So, only create indexes on columns that will be frequently searched against.

CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

• With UNIQUE keyword, duplicate values are not allowed
Database Management
Joins in DBMS

First Normal Form

Second Normal Form

Star Database Schema

Snowflake Database Schema

Security Measures

Best Practices
Joins in DBMS
First Normal Form (1NF)
 Contains atomic, unique value.

 Table attribute cannot hold multiple values. Must be only single-valued.

BEFORE AFTER
Second Normal Form (2NF)
 Must be in 1NF.

 All non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on primary key.

BEFORE AFTER
Star Database Schema
Every dimension is represented with only one-
dimension table.

Dimension table is joined to fact table using

foreign key

Dimension tables are not joined to each other

Fact table would contain only key and measure

Star schema is easy to understand and provides

optimal disk usage

Dimension tables are not normalized

Snowflake Database Schema
The snowflake schema uses
smaller disk space.

Due to multiple tables

query performance is
reduced

The need to perform more

maintenance because of the
more lookup tables.

Requires many joins to

retrieve the data
Security Measures
 Regularly update.

 Continuously monitor.

 Protect against SQL injection.

 Keep taking backups.

 Apply restrictions.

 Isolate the server.

 Manage logins.
Best Practices
 Follow naming conventions.

 Normalize as necessary.

 Well-commented code.

 Password encryption.

 Avoid hard deletion.

 Sequential ID as primary key.

 Avoid Select *, use columns