Introduction to

genetic engineering
Cod: GEN 413

Marwa Mustafa Ebrcat

 Course Logistics
Imetable
Lecture Sat 8.30-10.30 TH •
Midterm • Questions
Final Exam • Group discussions •
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Course Content marwa_barakat31@yahoo.com
Lecture •
Quizzes • The final grade is 100 marks for
Training sessions • each credit hour:
Assignments & Mini-Project • Continuous Assessment 10% •
Midterm Examination 30% •
•
Final Written Examination 60% •
 Reading Material
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PPT Slides •
 Lecture 1
Introduction to
genetic engineering
 The term genetic engineering initially referred to various
techniques used for the modification or manipulation of
organisms through the processes of heredity and 
reproduction. As such, the term embraced both artificial
selection and all the interventions of biomedical techniques,
among them artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization
 (e.g., “test-tube” babies), cloning, and gene manipulation.

 In the latter part of the 20th century, however, the term

came to refer more specifically to methods of 
recombinant DNA technology (or gene cloning), in which
DNA molecules from two or more sources are combined
either within cells or in vitro and are then inserted into host
organisms in which they are able to propagate.

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The possibility for recombinant DNA technology
emerged with the discovery of restriction enzymes in
1968 by Swiss microbiologist Werner Arber. The following
year American microbiologist Hamilton O. Smith purified
so-called type II restriction enzymes, which were found to
be essential to genetic engineering for their ability to 
cleave a specific site within the DNA (as opposed to type I
restriction enzymes, which cleave DNA at random sites).
Drawing on Smith’s work, American molecular biologist 
Daniel Nathans helped advance the technique of DNA
recombination in 1970–71 and demonstrated that type II
enzymes could be useful in genetic studies.

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Genetic engineering based on recombination
was pioneered in 1973 by American
biochemists Stanley N. Cohen and Herbert
W. Boyer, who were among the first to cut
DNA into fragments, rejoin different
fragments, and insert the new genes into 
E. coli bacteria, which then reproduced.

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 The history of genetics since 1900. Shaded areas represent the periods of major
development in each branch of the subject

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What is genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering: is the process by
which pieces of DNA are transferred from
one organism to another Human to
Bacterium, Bacterium to Plant, Human to
Sheep, Fish to Plant.

Genetic engineering: the artificial

manipulation, modification, and
recombination of DNA or other nucleic acid
 molecules in order to modify an organism
or population of organisms.
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Genetic engineering: is the process of
using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology
to alter the genetic makeup of an
organism. Traditionally, humans have
manipulated genomes indirectly by
controlling breeding and selecting
offspring with desired traits.
Genetic engineering: involves the direct
manipulation of one or more genes. Most
often, a gene from another species is
added to an organism's genome to give it a
desired phenotype.
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 Genetic engineering: Changing the DNA
in living organisms to create something
new. This organisms are called Genetically
Modified Organism (GMO)

 Example:

Bacteria that produce human insulin

 Genetically Modified organism are called

transgenic organism; since genes are
transferred from one organism to another

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 Some genetic engineering techniques are as
follows:
1. Artificial selection
A. selective breeding
B. hybridization
C. inbreeding

2. Cloning
3. Gene splicing
4. Gel electrophoresis: analyzing DNA

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Process and techniques
Most recombinant DNA technology involves
the insertion of foreign genes into the 
plasmids of common laboratory strains of 
bacteria. 
Plasmids are small rings of DNA; they are not
part of the bacterium’s chromosome (the
main repository of the organism’s genetic
information). Nonetheless, they are capable
of directing protein synthesis, and, like
chromosomal DNA, they are reproduced and
passed on to the bacterium’s progeny.
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Thus, by incorporating foreign DNA (for
example, a mammalian gene) into a
bacterium, researchers can obtain an almost
limitless number of copies of the inserted
gene. Furthermore, if the inserted gene is
operative (i.e., if it directs protein synthesis),
the modified bacterium will produce the
protein specified by the foreign DNA.

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A subsequent generation of genetic
engineering techniques that emerged in the
early 21st century centered on gene editing.
Gene editing, based on a technology known
as CRISPR-Cas9, allows researchers to
customize a living organism’s genetic
sequence by making very specific changes to
its DNA.

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Basic Concepts of Genetic Engineering

Recombinant DNA technology is a set of

methods used to locate, analyze, alter,
study, and recombine DNA sequences. It is
used to probe the structure and function of
genes, address questions in many areas of
biology, create commercial products, and
diagnose and treat diseases.

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  Steps in Genetic Engineering

Isolate the gene Insert it in a host using a

vector Produce as many copies of the host
as possible Separate and purify the product
of the gene Generation of DNA Fragments
Joining to a vector or carrier Molecule
Introduction into a host cell for
amplification Selection of required
sequence

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Applications
 Genetic engineering has advanced the
understanding of many theoretical and practical
aspects of gene function and organization.
Through recombinant DNA techniques, bacteria
have been created that are capable of synthesizing
human insulin, human growth hormone, alpha 
interferon, a hepatitis B vaccine, and other
medically useful substances. Plants may be
genetically adjusted to enable them to fix nitrogen,
and genetic diseases can possibly be corrected by
replacing dysfunctional genes with normally
functioning genes.
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 Possible hazards of genetic
engineering
Risks for human health, e.g. higher chances
for cancer Risks for animal health, e.g.
higher chances of infection

Risk of creating new microbes that are difficult

to kill by antibiotics

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 Thank You For
Attention

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