Advance Research Methods Lecture 5

Dr. Faryal Razzaq

dr.faryal@szabist-isb.edu.pk
 1. Observation
1. Observation
Broad area of
The research process
Broad area of
research interest
research interest
identified
identified

4.
4.
Theoretical
Theoretical
3. Problem
3. Problem Framework
Definition Framework
Definition 5.5. 6.6.
Research
Researchproblem
problem 7. Data Collection
Variables Generation Scientific
Scientific 7. Data Collection
delineated Variables Generation Analysis, and
delineated clearly ofof Research Analysis, and
clearly Research Interpretation
identified Hypothesis Design
Design Interpretation
identified Hypothesis
and
and
2. Preliminary labelled
labelled
2. Preliminary
Data Gathering
Data Gathering
Interviewing
Interviewing
Literature survey
Literature survey

8. Deduction
8. Deduction
Hypotheses substantiated?
Hypotheses substantiated?
Research question answered?
Research question answered?
 Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a statement of the
researcher’s idea or guess.

To test a hypothesis the first thing we do is

write down a statement – called the null
hypothesis.

The null hypothesis is often the opposite of

the researcher’s guess.
 Review
What are research questions?
What are variables?
Definition
Function
Measurement Scale

It must have at-least these elements

It must make a prediction
It is empirically testable
It could be refutable

4
 Research Hypotheses
Research Hypothesis: A statement of the
relationship among two or more variables or
groups.
The acceptance or non-acceptance of which
is based on resolving a logical alternative
with a null hypothesis.

Example: Graduate students who read the

text in research methods will score higher
on their comprehensive exams than
graduate students who did not read their
research methods text.
5
 Research Hypotheses Cont.
Research hypotheses can be stated as
Directional or Non-directional.
Directional hypotheses predict the specific
relationship among two or more variables or
groups:
Graduate students who read the text in
research methods will score higher on their
comprehensive exams than graduate students
who did not read their research methods text.
H0: µ1 < µ2 H1: µ1 > µ2
IQ scores will correlate in a positive manner
with Self Esteem Scores
Cats will bark less frequently than Dogs
6
 Research Hypotheses Cont.
Non-Directional Hypotheses predict that there will
be differences among two or more groups, but do
not specify the direction of the differences
Men and Women will differ in their recall of phone
numbers
The scores on the Geriatric Depression Scale will differ
between people with Stroke and people with Alzheimer’s
disease
IQ scores will correlate with Self Esteem scores

H0: µ1 = µ2 H1: µ1 ≠ µ2

7
 Example

Written out examples:

Null: There will be no difference in the
comprehensive test scores of graduate
students who read the text in research methods
and those who did not read their research
methods text.

Alternative: Graduate students who read the

text in research methods will score higher on
their comprehensive exams than graduate
8
students who did not read their research
methods text.
 Statistical Hypotheses Cont.
Remember, and this is important:

The null hypothesis always implies that there

is no relation or statistical difference between
variables or groups

The alternative hypothesis implies that there

is a meaningful relationship among variables or
groups

9
For Example
Some null hypotheses may be:
“there is no difference in male and female
leadership styles”.

“there is no relation between a motivation and

rewards”
 The Hypotheses
NullHypothesis H0: ‘There is relation between the
organizational commitment and employee satisfaction .'

Alternative Hypothesis HA or H1: ‘There relation

between the organization commitment and employee
satisfaction
 Error Types
 In hypothesis testing, we must contend with two
types of errors -- Type I and Type II.
 Errors are mistakes that we can make when judging the
null hypothesis

 Type I error is what happens when the tested

hypothesis is falsely rejected. (It is when you say
you found something, but that something is really
an error.) A type I error is a false positive.
 Type II error is what happens when a false tested
hypothesis is not rejected (Hays, 1986). (It is
when you don’t find something that is, in fact,
there.) A type II error is a false negative.

12
 Avoiding Decision Errors
 We always run the risk that we will observe a rare
event, and we will draw the wrong conclusion.

 Usually we want to avoid a Type I error, where we

reject H0 even though it is true.

 Many trials, and the use of a higher significance

level (P=.01 not P=.05) , make this less likely

 In a Type II error, we accept the null hypothesis

even though it is false.

 We will see an example of a type II error later.

 Example
Do we use Null Defendant
Innocent
Defendant
Guilty
Hypotheses in the real
world? Reject
Presumption
Type I Correct
of Innocence
Error
(Guilty
“Innocent until Proven Verdict)

Guilty”
Fail to Reject Correct Type II
Presumption
of Innocence
Error
(Not Guilty
Verdict)
 Decision Errors in Testing
In scientific research, keep in mind that it is the null
hypothesis that is tested, and then the null hypothesis is
either confirmed or refuted (sometimes phrased as
rejected or not rejected)
 Type I error
a true null hypothesis is rejected .There was no actual
relation but we accept that there is a relation
 Type II error
 The error that occurs when one accepts a null
hypothesis that is actually false. The researcher fails
to reject the null hypothesis when it should be
rejected. There was a relation but we accepted that
there is no relation.
 Example of Null & Alternative
In a research study investigating the effects of a newly developed medication on
blood pressure levels
 the null hypothesis would predict that there will be no difference in terms
of blood pressure levels between the group that receives the medication
(i.e., the experimental group) and the group that does not receive the
medication (i.e., the control group).
 By contrast, the alternate hypothesis would predict that there will be a
difference between the two groups with respect to blood pressure levels.
So, for example, The blood pressures were taken after exercise and the results
show after medication the blood pressure were lowered where in fact the
blood pressure was lowered due to rest if we reject the true hypothesis that
there is no difference between both groups we are making type 1 error
Similarly since null hypothesis predicts that the group that receives the new
medication will experience the same results in terms of blood pressures as the
control group. lets say after medication their blood pressure is normal but the
control group was taken from the people who didn't have any hypertension so
their blood pressure was naturally normal so the researcher commits type 2
error by saying there is no difference between control and experimental
group where as the blood pressure was lowered by the drug. So a false null
hypothesis is accepted
 Discussion 2
 A researcher wants to examine the value of electronic
commerce for small businesses. The question is whether
or not the investment is of value. The researcher sets up
a web site with a fictitious business selling a special
printer attachment. The researcher asks those who visit
the site to fill in a specially designed form and return it
via the internet. The researcher will count how many
people visit the site and look at the answers to particular
questions on the form which relate to usability of the
site and whether or not they would buy goods in this
way. 
 Question Case Study 1

1. What is the broad problem area ? what is the

research problem?
2. Suggest some hypothesis.
3. What type of study will it be? What will be
your reasoning?
4. Define your IV’s and DV’s etc. (preferably with
a schematic diagram).
5. How could you make the study more valuable?