Advanced Techniques in Power Factor Correction (PFC) : Grupo de Electrónica Industrial Universidad de Oviedo (Spain)

Advanced Techniques in Power Factor
Correction (PFC)
Prof. Dr. Javier Sebastián
Grupo de Electrónica Industrial

Universidad de Oviedo (Spain)
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 1

or Correction
Outline
• Introduction
• Using a simple resistor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A
• Using an inductor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A and
in Class D
• Exploring the use of isolated Resistor Emulators as the only

conversion stage for medium-speed response applications
• High-efficiency post regulators used to improve the transient
response of Resistors Emulators
• Very simple single-stage PFCs
• Very simple current shaping techniques for very low-cost
applications
or Correction
Outline
• Introduction
in Class D

applications
or Correction
Introduction (I)
Focusing the problem
Current
DC/DC Electronic
converter circuitry
Line
Power supply
Electronic load
 Cheap & reliable  Input current witha

strong harmonic content
or Correction
Introduction (II)
Current
Distorted
Electronic
load
Input
Line impedance voltage
Load
Line
Load
Load

or Correction
Introduction (III)
Quantifying the problem
Word used to describe
Power Factor (PF) the problem
Input power
PF=
Input voltage, rms X Input current, rms
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
(Input current, rms)2 - (Its 1ST harmonic, rms)2

THD=
Its 1ST harmonic, rms
Each individual harmonic

European
regulations
or Correction
Introduction (IV)
Conflict of interest
Electronic equipment
Power Companies’ will: manufacturers’ will:
High PF Low cost
No harmonics Reliability
Regulations about
harmonics in the line

or Correction
Introduction (V)
Starting solving the problem (I)
Using active filters
Electronic
load
Line impedance
Electronic
load
Line
Electronic
load
Active
Filter
or Correction
Introduction (VI)
Starting solving the problem (II)
Modifying the electronic load Power Factor Correctors
Input
current
Either DC/DC
Line New Electronic
devices converter circuitry
or
Power supply
Electronic load
Power Factor Corrector

or Correction
Introduction (VII)
However: the value of the Power Factor is not

important.
According to the European Regulations, only the value
of each individual harmonic is important.
We should use words such as “Low-Frequency

Harmonic Reduction” and “Low-Frequency
Harmonic Reducer” instead of “Power Factor
Correction” and “Power Factor Corrector”.

or Correction
Introduction (VIII)
Focusing the course
Single-Phase AC/DC
Line Three-Phase Conversion AC/AC
High power Reactive Recovery to line

Power Low-medium power energy No recovery
(230V, <16A)
External connection
Connection Modifying AC/DC topology

or Correction
Introduction (IX)
What is the right choice in PFC?

It strongly depends on the application. There is not
“magic” solutions.
It depends on:
• The regulations that must be applied
• The type of equipment
• The output power
• The input voltage range
• The output voltage
• The dynamic response needed
• The main objective in the design
or Correction
Introduction (X)
Balanced Yes Class
3 equipment? A
The European Regulation

No
IEC 61000-3-2
Portable Class
tool? Yes B
No
Lighting Class
Power supplies are either equipment?
C
Yes
Class A or Class D
No
PC or TV & Class
P<600 W?
Yes
D
No
or Correction
Introduction (XI)
Harmonic limits for Class A and Class D
Harmonic Class A [A] Class D [mA/W]
3 2.3 3.4
5 1.14 1.9
7 0.77 1.0
9 0.40 0.5
11 0.33 0.35
13 0.21 0.296
15 n 39 2.25/n 3.85/n
Very Important!!
Limits in Class A are absolute values [A]
Limits in Class D are relative values [mA/W]
or Correction
Introduction (XII)
Example #1: a 100 W (low-power) converter
Harmonic Limits in Limits in
Class A [mA] Class D [mA]
3 2300 340
5 1140 190
7 770 100
9 400 50
11 330 35
13 210 29.6
15 n 39 2250/n 385/n
Limits in Class A are less strict for low-power applications

or Correction
Introduction (XIII)
Example #2: a 500 W (medium-power) converter
Harmonic Limits in Limits in
Class A [mA] Class D [mA]
3 2300 1700
5 1140 950
7 770 500
9 400 250
11 330 175
13 210 148
15 n 39 2250/n 1925/n
Limits in Class A and in Class D become more

similar for medium-power applications
or Correction
Introduction (XIV)
Example #1: a 100 W (low-power) battery

charger (Class A)
Line
voltage Line
current
Battery
PF = 0.46 and
THD = 193.1%
This waveform complies
with the regulations!!!
Very cheap systems for low-frequency harmonic attenuation
can be used to obtain this type of waveform
or Correction
Introduction (XV)
Example #1: a 100 W (low-power) TV set (Class D)

Line
voltage Line
current
It does not comply with

the regulations
Line
voltage Line
current
PF = 0.748 and A slightly more complex system

THD = 88.8% must be used (it is still very simple)

or Correction
Introduction (XVI)
Example #2: two 500 W (low-power) pieces of

equipment
Class D
Class A
Line
voltage Line
Line voltage Line
current current
PF = 0.748 and
PF = 0.705 and
THD = 88.8%
THD = 100.5%
The advantages of being Class A vanish at 500 W

or Correction
Introduction (XVII)
Example #3: same Class, different power
Line
voltage
Line
current Line
voltage Line
current
PF = 0.705 and
THD = 100.5% PF = 0.963 and
THD = 28.1%
The complexity of the systems for low-frequency

harmonic attenuation increases with the power
or Correction
Introduction (XVIII)
Influence of the input voltage range (I)
 European range: 190 Vac – 265 Vac
 American range: 85 Vac – 130 Vac
 Universal range: 85 Vac – 265 Vac
 Two ranges (American and European), but a

mechanical switch permitted for changing the
range

or Correction
Introduction (XIX)
Influence of the input voltage range (II)
Single range (either European or American) and simple system for

low-frequency harmonic attenuation (PFC) 
Moderate change in the input voltage of the DC/DC converter 
Slight penalty in efficiency
DC/DC Electronic
Line PFC converter circuitry
Simple PFC with Power supply

single range Electronic load

or Correction
Introduction (XX)
Influence of the input voltage range (III)
Universal range and simple PFC 
Large change in the input voltage of the DC/DC converter 
Significant penalty in efficiency 
Complex PFCs which guaranty constant input voltage are interesting
DC/DC Electronic
Line PFC converter circuitry
Complex PFC with Power supply

universal range
Electronic load
or Correction
Introduction (XXI)
Influence of the input voltage range (IV)
Two ranges selected by a switch
Power supply for single DC/DC Electronic

range without PFC converter circuitry
Power supply
Electronic load
Power supply for double

range without PFC 230V
DC/DC Electronic
110V converter circuitry
Is it compatible with the

Power supply
use of simple PFC? Electronic load
or Correction
Introduction (XXII)
Influence of the input voltage range (V)
Two ranges selected by a switch and PFC
Simple
PFC
230V DC/DC
Simple PFC placed
on the DC side converter
110V
Simple
PFC
Power supply
Simple
Simple PFC placed PFC 230V DC/DC
on the AC side converter
110V
Power supply
or Correction
Introduction (XXIII)
Changing the place of the DC/DC
converter  Resistor Emulator concept
Current
DC/DC Electronic
converter circuitry
Line
Power supply
Electronic load
DC/DC
converter Electronic
Current as
Resistor circuitry
Line
Emulator
Power supply
Electronic load

or Correction
Introduction (XXIV) Using only a Resistor Emulator (I)
Energy stored at the output

voltage  the size depends on
Energy stored at high voltage
the voltage
(325 V DC)  small size
Current
DC/DC
converter
Output
Output
DC/DC Current as
converter Resistor
Line Line
Emulator
Power supply Power supply
It is not a good solution for low-voltage

(<12 V DC) applications

or Correction
Introduction (XXV) Using only a Resistor Emulator (II)
Current Voltage Power

Power Current
Voltage
DC/DC
Output
converter
Output
DC/DC as
converter Resistor
Line Line
Emulator
Energy stored here

No devices to store
The converter is in charge of energy at 100 Hz
cancelling the output ripple
Little (or no) power processed at
specific moments  the output
It is not a good solution when
ripple depends on the capacitor
low output-ripple is needed
or Correction
Introduction (XXVI) Using only a Resistor Emulator (III)
Power
Power Voltage
Current
Current
Voltage
DC/DC
Output
converter
Output
DC/DC as
converter Resistor
Line Line
Emulator
Energy stored here

No devices to store energy at 100 Hz
The converter can get energy from the
capacitor to maintain the output voltage Little (or no) power processed at
when the output current changes specific moments  no energy
available to maintain the output
It is not a good solution when fast voltage when the output current
transient response is needed changes

or Correction
Introduction (XXVII) In the case of fast transient response
needed:
Two separate Simple or

DC/DC Electronic
stages Line complex converter circuitry
PFC
Power supply
One integrated
stage
Simple DC/DC
Line PFC Electronic
converter
section circuitry
section
A DC/DC converter
(or section) is needed Power supply

or Correction
Introduction (XXVIII)
What are the design priorities?
 Cost
 Size
 Weight
 Efficiency
 Only comply with the regulations
 High Power Factor and low Total Harmonic
Distortion (for marketing reasons)
They also determine the right choice

or Correction
Outline
• Introduction
• Using a simple resistor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in
Class A
in Class D

applications
or Correction
Using a resistor (I)
Looking for the simplest solution (I)
DC/DC
Line converter
200F (120 W)
4 X 1N4007
Power supply
Capacitor voltage
Input current Class D

or Correction
Using a resistor (II) Looking for the simplest solution (II)
Order Measured [A] Limits Class D [A]

Input current 1 0.542 -
3 0.527 0.408
5 0.498 0.228
7 0.457 0.12
9 0.407 0.06
11 0.351 0.042
Input current [A]
13 0.294 0.036
0.6
15 0.239 0.031
17 0.192 0.027
Limits in Class D 19 0.155 0.024
0.4
21 0.132 0.022
Simulated
23 0.121 0.02
25 0.117 0.018
0.2
27 0.115 0.017
29 0.112 0.016
0 31 0.105 0.015
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 33 0.097 0.014
Harmonic order
35 0.087 0.013
37 0.079 0.012
The compliance is very far 39 0.073 0.012

or Correction
Using a resistor (III) Looking for the simplest solution (III)
What about a Class A piece of equipment?
DC/DC
Line converter
200F (120 W)
4 X 1N4007 Battery Charger

Battery
Capacitor voltage
Input current Class A

or Correction
Using a resistor (IV) Looking for the simplest solution (IV)
Input current Order Measured [A] Limits Class A [A]

1 0.542 -
3 0.527 2.3
5 0.498 1.14
7 0.457 0.77
Input current [A] 9 0.407 0.4
2.5 11 0.351 0.33

13 0.294 0.21
2 15 0.239 0.15
Limits in Class A 17 0.192 0.132
1.5 19 0.155 0.118
Simulated
1 21 0.132 0.107
23 0.121 0.098
0.5 25 0.117 0.09
27 0.115 0.083
0 29 0.112 0.078
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Harmonic order 31 0.105 0.073
33 0.097 0.068
It does not comply, but it 35 0.087 0.064
37 0.079 0.061
is very near to comply 39 0.073 0.058

or Correction
Using a resistor (V) Looking for the simplest solution (V)
Let us change the value of the bulk capacitor

Order Measured [A] Limits Class A [A]
1 0.528 -
DC/DC 3 0.5 2.3

5 0.448 1.14
Line converter
7 0.378 0.77
100F (120 W) 9 0.3 0.4
11 0.225 0.33
13 0.164 0.21
4 X 1N4007 Battery Charger 15 0.128 0.15
17 0.115 0.132
19 0.113 0.118
Capacitor voltage
21 0.109 0.107
23 0.1 0.098
25 0.087 0.09
Input current 27 0.076 0.083
29 0.07 0.078
31 0.067 0.073
33 0.066 0.068
Almost compliance 35 0.063 0.064
with 100 F 37 0.058 0.061

39 0.053 0.058

or Correction
Using a resistor (VI) Looking for the simplest solution (VI)
However, the value of the bulk capacitor cannot be

freely chosen because:
 Hold-up time requirements
 Input voltage range of the DC/DC

converter
Another solution must be found

or Correction
Using a resistor (VII)
The simplest solution: to add a resistor
DC side
R Electronic
DC/DC
Line circuitry
converter
Class A
Power supply
AC side
R
Electronic
DC/DC
Line circuitry
converter
Class A
Power supply

or Correction
Using a resistor (VIII)
Order Measured [A] Measured [A] Measured [A] Limits

Cbulk = 200 F
with R=0  with R=1  with R=1.5  Class A [A]
Pconverter = 120 W
1 0.542 0.539 0.538 -
3 0.527 0.52 0.516 2.3
5 0.498 0.484 0.474 1.14
7 0.457 0.433 0.416 0.77
9 0.407 0.372 0.347 0.4
11 0.351 0.304 0.273 0.33
13 0.294 0.237 0.2 0.21
15 0.239 0.173 0.135 0.15
17 0.192 0.12 0.084 0.132
19 0.155 0.084 0.056 0.118
21 0.132 0.067 0.053 0.107 @ 230V ac, R =1.5 
23 0.121 0.066 0.057 0.098
25 0.117 0.067 0.058 0.09 iinput peak = 4.12 A
27
29
0.115
0.112
0.065
0.058
0.052
0.041
0.083
0.078
Presistor = 1.85 W
31 0.105 0.047 0.029 0.073
33 0.097 0.036 0.021 0.068
35 0.087 0.028 0.02 0.064
37 0.079 0.025 0.022 0.061
39 0.073 0.026 0.024 0.058

or Correction
Using a resistor (IX)
Input-current waveform with a resistor
Cbulk = 200 F
Pconverter = 120 W
Capacitor voltage Capacitor voltage
Input current Input current
@ 230V ac, R =1.5  @ 230V ac, R =0 

iinput peak = 4.12 A iinput peak = 6.37 A
Presistor = 1.85 W

or Correction
Using a resistor (X)
Design procedure
Choose bulk
capacitor
Input power
Obtain the resistor

(from graphs)
Calculate losses @ full

power, 190 Vac
Other
NO Acceptable YES Use the simplest
method must
be used
losses? method

or Correction
Using a resistor (XI)
Value of the resistor needed to comply
with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A as a
function of the input power (bulk capacitor
in F per watt as parameter)
R []
4
2 2 F/W
1
1 F/W 0.5 F/W
50 100 150 200 250 300

Output power [W]

or Correction
Using a resistor (XII)
Absolute power losses at full
load and minimum line voltage
(maximum line current)
Power losses [W]

25
20
15
1 F/W 0.5 F/W
10
5 2 F/W
50 100 150 200 250 300

Output power [W]

or Correction
Using a resistor (XIII)
Relative power losses (PR/Poutput) at full
load and minimum line voltage
(maximum line current)
Relative losses [%]

10
8
1 F/W
6
4
2 F/W
2
0.5 F/W
50 100 150 200 250 300
Output Power [W]

or Correction
Using a resistor (XIV)
Design example:
Poutput=150W, C=150F (1F/W)
R []
4
3
2.5 
2
1
1 F/W
50 100 150 200 250 300

Output power [W]

or Correction
Using a resistor (XV)
Power losses in the resistor at
Poutput=150W and Vline=190V
Power losses [W]

25
20
15
1 F/W
10
5W 5
50 100 150 200 250 300

Output power [W]

or Correction
Using a resistor (XVI)
Power limits for this solution
Relative losses [%]

10
6
1 F/W
Very
4 Not so
interesting
interesting
2
50 100 150 200 250 300

Output Power [W]

or Correction
Using a resistor (XVII)
Using this solution for Universal line
voltage range
R
Pconverter = 120 W DC/DC
Line
Cbulk = 200 F Cbulk
converter
R=1.5  Pconverter
4 X 1N4007 Power supply
Line @ 230V @ 110V

Quantity
iinput peak 4.12 A 5.09A
iinput RMS 1.11 A 1.853 A Power losses

strongly increase at
Plosses resistor 1.85 W 5.15 W low line voltage

or Correction
Using a resistor (XVIII)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (I)
DC side R/2

230V Electronic
DC/DC
Line circuitry
110V converter
Class A
R/2
Power supply
AC side R
Electronic
230V DC/DC
Line circuitry
110V converter
Class A
Power supply
Different operation (AC side & DC side)

or Correction
Using a resistor (XIX) Adaptation for operation in two ranges (II)
AC side R
Electronic
iinput 110V 230V DC/DC
circuitry
110V converter
Line Class A
Power supply
R
Electronic
circuitry
110V converter
Line Class A
Power supply
Both iinput 110V and iinput 230V passing through R

or Correction
Using a resistor (XX) Adaptation for operation in two ranges (III)
DC side
iinput 110V R/2
230V Electronic
DC/DC
circuitry
110V converter
Line Class A
R/2
Power supply
iinput 230V R/2

230V Electronic
DC/DC
circuitry
110V converter
Line Class A
R/2 Power supply
iinput 110V passing through R/2

and iinput 230V passing through R (better)
or Correction
Using a resistor (XXI)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (IV)
Example:
Pconverter = 120 W
Cbulk = 2 X 400 F (series)
R/2
Electronic
R=1.5  110V 230V DC/DC
Line circuitry
110V converter
Class A
R/2
Plosses resistors = 3.15 W
Power supply
(total)
R
230V Electronic
110V DC/DC
Line circuitry
converter
110V Class A
Power supply
Plosses resistor = 5.27 W

or Correction
Using a resistor (XXII)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (V)
R C
230V Electronic
DC/DC
Line circuitry
converter
110V Class A
C
Power supply
Power R C losses losses losses losses

@ 230V @ 190V @ 110V @ 85V
100 W 1.6  2x220 F 1.3 W 1.6 W 3.8 W 5W
200 W 3.6  2x440 F 8.5 W 11.5 W 29 W 50 W
Impractical due to the fact that the power losses strongly

increase at low line voltage
or Correction
Using a resistor (XXIII)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (VI)
R/2 C
Electronic
230V DC/DC
Line circuitry
110V converter
Class A
R/2 C
Power supply
Power R C losses losses losses losses

@ 230V @ 190V @ 110V @ 85V
100 W 1.6  2x220 F 1.3 W 1.6 W 2.1 W 3.1 W
200 W 3.6  2x440 F 8.5 W 11.5 W 16 W 25 W
Better results with the resistor split into two resistors

or Correction
Using a resistor (XXIV)
Experimental results (I)
Pconverter = 100 W
R/2
C = 2 X 100 F (series)
R = 2x0.82  230V C
Line
110V
1 A/div
R/2 C
Input current [A]

2.5
@ 230V, 100W 2
@ 230V, 100W,
2x0.82, 2W
1.5
2 A/div Limits in Class A
1
Measured
0.5
0
@ 110V, 100W 3 7 11 15 19 23 27 31 35
Harmonic Order

or Correction
Using a resistor (XXV)
Experimental results (II)
Pconverter = 200 W
R/2
C = 2 X 200 F (series)
R= 2x1.8  230V C
Line
110V
2 A/div
R/2 C
Input current [A]

2.5
@ 230V, 200W @ 230V, 200W,
2 2x1.8, 10W
1.5
2 A/div Limits in Class A
1
Measured
0.5
@ 110V, 200W 0
11 15 19 23 27 31 35
3 7
Harmonic Order
or Correction
Using a resistor (XXVI) Conclusions of the use of a resistor to
comply with the IEC 61000-3-2
regulations in Class A
 This is the simplest possible solution
 Low-cost and low-size solution
 Very interesting for low-power (P<200-300W) applications
 High losses with universal line voltage range (only valid

for P<150W)
 The DC bus is not regulated

 For the universal line voltage and with a voltage-doubler
with a mechanical switch, it can be used up to 200W
 No perfect sinusoidal, but compliance with IEC 61000-3-2

is achieved

or Correction
Outline
• Introduction
• Using an inductor to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A
and in Class D

applications
or Correction
Using an inductor (I)
Another very simple solution: to add an inductor
DC side
L Electronic
DC/DC
Line circuitry
converter
Class A
Power supply
AC side
L
Electronic
DC/DC
Line circuitry
converter
Class A
Power supply

or Correction
Using an inductor (II)
Order Measured [A] Measured [A] Measured [A] Limits

Cbulk = 200 F
with L=0 mH with L=1 mH with L=2 mH Class A [A]
Pconverter = 120 W
1 0.542 0.552 0.545 -
3 0.527 0.531 0.515 2.3
5 0.498 0.493 0.459 1.14
7 0.457 0.438 0.384 0.77
9 0.407 0.374 0.299 0.4
11 0.351 0.303 0.214 0.33
13 0.294 0.232 0.138 0.21
15 0.239 0.167 0.079 0.15
17 0.192 0.11 0.046 0.132
19 0.155 0.067 0.039 0.118
21 0.132 0.042 0.04 0.107 @ 230V ac, L = 2 mH
23 0.121 0.036 0.036 0.098
25 0.117 0.037 0.028 0.09
iinput peak = 3.84 A
27 0.115 0.037 0.02 0.083
29 0.112 0.032 0.017 0.078
31 0.105 0.025 0.016 0.073
33 0.097 0.019 0.016 0.068
35 0.087 0.016 0.014 0.064
37 0.079 0.015 0.011 0.061
39 0.073 0.015 0.009 0.058

or Correction
Using an inductor (III)
Input-current waveform and harmonic
content with an inductor
Capacitor voltage
Example:
Cbulk = 200 F
Input current Pconverter = 120 W
L = 2 mH
Input current [A] Input current [A]

2.5 0.6
@ 230V, 120 W @ 230V, 120 W

2
0.4 Limits in Class D
Limits in Class A
1.5
Simulated
Simulated
1 0.2 It does not
0.5 It complies comply
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Harmonic order Harmonic order

or Correction
Using an inductor (IV)
Comparing input-current waveform with
an inductor and a resistor for Class A
equipment
Cbulk = 200 F
Pconverter = 120 W
Capacitor voltage Capacitor voltage
Input current
Input current
@ 230V ac, R =1.5  @ 230V ac, L = 2 mH

iinput peak = 4.12 A iinput peak = 3.84 A
Presistor = 1.85 W
or Correction
Using an inductor (V)
Comparing input-current waveforms with
different bulk capacitor values
L = 3.3 mH 340 V
Pconverter = 400 W
288 V
Capacitor
312 V
voltage
8.38 A
300 V Capacitor Input current
7.55 A voltage
Input current C = 200 F

0 0 10 ms 20 ms
C = 800 F 10
0 10 ms 20 ms C = 200 F
5
Slightly influence of C = 800 F
the capacitor value 0
0 10 ms
or Correction
Using an inductor (VI) Looking for the most restrictive harmonics (I)
Example: 100 W, Input current [A]

1.7 mH & 47 F 5
3.85 A
Input current [A]
3.5
@ 230V, 100 W,
3 1.7 mH & 47 F 0
2.5
2
Limits in Class A
1.5
Simulated -5
0 10 ms 20 ms
1
Time
0.5
Harmonics 13th-17th are
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
the most restrictive at
Harmonic Order
low power
or Correction
Using an inductor (VII) Looking for the most restrictive harmonics (II)
Input current [A]

Example: 600 W,
7.8 mH & 330 F 10
8.68 A
Input current [A]

3.5 0
@ 230V, 600 W,
3 7.8 mH & 330 F
2.5
-10
2 Limits in Class A 0 10 ms 20 ms
1.5 Simulated Time
0.5 Harmonics 3rd-5th are

3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 the most restrictive at
Harmonic Order high power
or Correction
Using an inductor (VIII)
Value of the minimum inductor needed to
comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class A as a
function of the input power (bulk capacitor in F
per watt as parameter)
L [mH]
8
0.5 F/W
4
2 F/W
2
100 200 300 400 500 600

Output power [W]
or Correction
Using an inductor (IX)
Comparing the influence of the bulk capacitor for
the case of the inductor and the resistor
L [mH]
8 R []
4
6
0.5 F/W 3
1 F/W
4 2 2 F/W
2 F/W 1
2
0.5 F/W
50 100 150 200 250 300
100 200 300 400 500 600 Output power [W]
Output power [W]
Lower inductor values with Erratic influence of the

high bulk capacitor values value of the bulk capacitor

or Correction
Using an inductor (X)
Design procedure
Choose bulk for Class A
capacitor
Input power
Obtain the inductor

(from graphs)
Calculate the inductor

size
Other
NO Acceptable YES
method must Use this method
size?
be used

or Correction
Using an inductor (XI)
Design example:
Poutput=200 W, C=100 F (0.5 F/W)
L [mH]
8
0.5 F/W
4
2.7 mH 2 F/W
2
100 200 300 400 500 600

Output power [W]

or Correction
Using an inductor (XII)
What about the inductor size?
We must know the maximum peak value of the input current (at full
load and minimum line voltage) determine the gap and number of
turns
We must know the maximum RMS value of the input current (at full
load and minimum line voltage) determine the wire size (diameter)
and losses
Equivalent
Input power Ipeak [A] IRMS [A] Power losses
L [mH] ferrite
[W] (%)
core size
5.33 @ 230V 1.6 @ 230V

200 2.7 E30/15/7 0.8
6.07 @ 190V 1.88 @ 190V

or Correction
Using an inductor (XIII)
Inductor size and losses for different
power levels
Equivalent
Input power Power losses
L [mH] ferrite
[W] (%)
core size
100 2 E20/10/5 0.53
200 2.7 E30/15/7 0.8
300 3.4 E42/21/15 0.3
400 4.4 E42/21/15 0.66
500 6.8 E42/21/20 0.57
600 7.8 E42/21/20 1.66

or Correction
Using an inductor (XIV)
Magnetic materials for the inductor (I)
B [T]
Silicon steel lamination 2
core (instead of ferrite) 1.5
Example: RG11 1
0.5
Plosses [kw/m3] 10 100 1000 10000 100000
100 H [A/m]
10
1 High induction levels

0.1 (1.4 T) are possible
0.01
10 100 1000 10000
B [mT]
or Correction
Using an inductor (XV)
Magnetic materials for the inductor (II)

or Correction
Using an inductor (XVI)
DC-side or AC-side inductor?
Example: Cbulk = 200 F, L = 2 mH, Pconverter = 120 W
DC-side inductor
with AC-side
with DC-side inductor
inductor
Capacitor voltage
Line current
AC-side
Time inductor
with AC-side with DC-side
inductor inductor
Exactly the same result if the converter is

working in strong DCM

or Correction
Using an inductor (XVII)
What about complying with the IEC
61000-3-2 regulations in Class D?
Input current [A]
0.6
@ 230V, 120 W
0.4 Limits in Class D
Simulated
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Harmonic order
 Low-frequency harmonics are the most significant ones

 A considerable increase in the inductance value is needed

or Correction
Using an inductor (XVIII)
Looking for the minimum value of L to
comply with the regulations in Class D (I)
Input current [A]

Input current [A]
2 0.5
@ 230V, 100W, 41mH & 200F
1.42 A
1 0.4
0.3
Limits in Class D
0 @ 100W
0.2
-1 Simulated
0.1
-2
0 10 ms 20 ms 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Time Harmonic Order
An inductor of 41 mH is needed for 100 W

or Correction
Using an inductor (XIX) Looking for the minimum value of L to
comply with the regulations in Class D (II)
If we increase the power, the limits will also increase a similar
input-current waveform is enough to comply with the regulations
Input current [A] Input current [A]

10 3
8.12 A @ 230V, 600W, 7mH & 1200F
2.5
2
0 Limits in Class D
1.5 @ 600W
1
Simulated
0.5
-10
0 10 ms 20 ms 0
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Time Harmonic Order
An inductor of 7 mH is needed for 600 W

or Correction
Using an inductor (XX)
Value of the minimum inductor needed to
comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in Class D as a
function of the input power (bulk capacitor in F
per watt as parameter)
L [mH]
50
The value of the inductor’s
40
inductance decreases
when the power increases,
30
0.5 F/W but the size increases
(because it depends on the
20
square value of the peak
2 F/W
current)
10
100 200 300 400 500 600

Output power [W]

or Correction
Using an inductor (XXI)
Inductor size and losses for different
power levels
Equivalent
Input power Power losses
L [mH] ferrite
[W] (%)
core size
100 41 E42/21/15 1
200 21 E42/21/15 2
300 14 E42/21/20 1.1
400 10 E42/21/20 1.25
500 8.7 E42/21/20 1.8
600 6.9 E42/21/20 2.18

or Correction
Using an inductor (XXII)
Comparing the value of the minimum inductor
needed to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2 in
Class A and in Class D
L [mH] L [mH]
8 50
Minimum inductor to Minimum inductor to
comply in Class A 40 comply in Class D
6
0.5 F/W 30
4 0.5 F/W
20
2 F/W
2 2 F/W
10
100 200 300 400 500 600 100 200 300 400 500 600
Output power [W] Output power [W]
Lower L values at low power Similar L values at high power

or Correction
Using an inductor (XXIII) Inductor size and losses for different power
levels
Equivalent Power L [mH] in Equivalent Power
Input power L [mH] in
core size in losses in Class D core size in losses in
[W] Class A
Class A Class A (%) Class D Class D (%)
100 2 E20/10/5 0.53 41 E42/21/15 1
200 2.7 E30/15/7 0.8 21 E42/21/15 2
300 3.4 E42/21/15 0.3 14 E42/21/20 1.1
400 4.4 E42/21/15 0.66 10 E42/21/20 1.25
500 6.8 E42/21/20 0.57 8.7 E42/21/20 1.8
600 7.8 E42/21/20 1.66 6.9 E42/21/20 2.18
Lower L sizes at low

Similar L sizes at high power
power in Class A
or Correction
Using an inductor (XXIV)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (I)
DC side L/2

230V Electronic
DC/DC
Line circuitry
110V converter
Class A
L/2
Power supply
AC side L
Electronic
230V DC/DC
Line circuitry
110V converter
Class A
Power supply
Different operation (AC side & DC side)

or Correction
Using an inductor (XXV)
Adaptation for operation in two ranges (II)
AC side L
Electronic
circuitry
110V converter
Line Class A
Power supply
L
Electronic
circuitry
110V converter
Line Class A
Power supply
Both iinput 110V and iinput 230V passing through L

or Correction
Using an inductor (XXVI) Adaptation for operation in two ranges (II)
DC side
iinput 110V L/2
230V Electronic
DC/DC
circuitry
110V converter
Line Class A
L/2
Power supply
iinput 230V L/2

230V Electronic
DC/DC
circuitry
110V converter
Line Class A
L/2 Power supply
iinput 110V passing through L/2 and iinput 230V passing through L

or Correction
Using an inductor (XXVII)
L
Class D
Pconverter = 100 W Line
C = 47 F C
L = 41 mH
Input current [A]
0.5 A/div @ 230V, 100W,

0.3 41 mH
0.2
Limits in Class D
@ 230V, 100W
0.1 Measured
5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37
Harmonic order

or Correction
Using an inductor (XXVIII)
Experimental results (II)
Class A
Pconverter = 100 W L
C = 47 F Line
L = 1.7 mH C
Input current [A]
1 A/div @ 230V, 100W,

2
1.7 mH
Limits in Class A
@ 230V, 100W 1
Measured
3 9 11 15 19 23 27 31 35
Harmonic order
or Correction
Using an inductor (XXVIII) Conclusions of the use of an inductor
to comply with the IEC 61000-3-2
regulations in Class A and Class D
 This is a very simple solution
 Low-cost and high-efficiency (low-losses) solution
 Very interesting for low-power (P<200-300W) applications

in Class A
 Large inductor size for Class D and high-power Class A

 The DC bus is not regulated
 For the universal line voltage range, a voltage doubler
with a mechanical switch can be implemented to improve
the circuit operation
 No perfect sinusoidal waveform, but compliance with the

IEC 61000-3-2 regulations
or Correction
Outline
• Introduction
in Class D

applications
or Correction
Using only a RE (I) Passive (L or R) versus active systems to
reduce the harmonic content
Current  Low-cost
R or L  Either low-losses or low-size
Output
Line DC/DC
 Non-sinusoidal waveform 
converter solutions for low power
Power supply
 Unregulated voltage across the
capacitor  solutions for limited line
voltage range (many times, voltage
doubler needed)
DC/DC
converter
Output  Sinusoidal waveform  solutions for any
Current
power
as
Line
Resistor  Regulated voltage across the capacitor 
Emulator solutions for universal line voltage range
Power supply
 A good solution if only the
Resistor Emulator were enough

or Correction
Using only a RE (II) Is only a Resistor Emulator enough to
implement the overall power supply?
Energy stored at the output

voltage  the size depends on
Energy stored at high voltage the voltage
(325 V DC)  small size
DC/DC
R or L
Output
converter
Output
DC/DC as
converter Resistor
Emulator
Power supply
Power supply
From the point of view of the capacitor size, it is not a bad

solution for medium and high voltage applications (>12 V DC)

or Correction
Using only a RE (III) And, what about the dynamics?
Example of Resistor Emulator control:

control based on an analog multiplier
DC/DC
converter
Lowpass
filter
Why a lowpass filter
here?
or Correction
Using only a RE (IV)
The lowpass filter influence (I)
DC/DC
Filter with very- Filter with converter
low cut-off high cut-off
frequency frequency
Input voltage Input voltage
Lowpass
Vea Vea filter
Vea
Current Reference=
Current Reference= A filter with low cut-off frequency
Vea·Sinus
Vea·Sinus is needed if a perfect sinusoidal
is required

or Correction
Using only a RE (V)
The lowpass filter influence (II)
And, what about the

DC/DC
dynamic response? converter
Filter with very low cut-off frequency:

 Perfect sinusoidal line current
 Very poor dynamic response
Lowpass
filter
Filter with high cut-off frequency:
Vea
 Non-perfect sinusoidal line current
But, can we achieve compliance with If yes, the use of only a Resistor
the IEC 61000-3-2 and reasonable Emulator as overall power
dynamic response? supply becomes very attractive

or Correction
Using only a RE (VI) Line current waveform as a function of
the voltage regulator pole frequency fp
Voltage AR [dB] 60
40
regulator
20
0
-20
-40
fp: 500 Hz AR [º] 45
fp: 100 Hz 0
fp: 1000 Hz
-45
fp: 10 Hz -90
-135
time 1 10 100 1000 10000
f [Hz]
fp = 1kHz is a practical limit (no
fp fp fp f p
significant phase shift at 100Hz)
or Correction
Using only a RE (VII) Line current waveform as a function of
the voltage regulator DC gain AR
AR = 50
AR = 100
fp: 10 Hz
fp: 100 Hz
fp: 500 Hz
AR = 100
is a practical limit
due to the voltage
fp: 1000 Hz levels in the
controller

or Correction
Using only a RE (VIII)
Looking for the worst case
Input current [A]
Line current 3
2.3 A Limits in Class D

fp1000 Hz 2 @ 100W
AR  100 Simulated
1
0
3 11 21 31 39
Harmonic Order
Theoretical harmonic content: Only

the third harmonic is present

or Correction
Using only a RE (IX) Why is the third harmonic the only one
present in the line current? (I)
For 0t V1sint iline DC
DC/DC
converter
V1sint
Veao+ Veasin2t
Rs
Viref= V1sint· (Veao+ Veasin2t)

Viref
Lowpass
filter
Vea
Viref(t) = VeaoV1sint + 0.5V1Veacost - 0.5V1Veacos3t 
iline DC (t) = (VeaoV1sint + 0.5V1Veacost - 0.5V1Veacos3t)/Rs

Therefore, for 0t
iline AC (t) = iline DC (t) = (VeaoV1sint + 0.5V1Veacost - 0.5V1Veacos3t)/Rs
or Correction
Using only a RE (X) Why is the third harmonic the only one
present in the line current? (II)
iline DC (t)
Due to the fact that the frequency of iline DC is 2
iline DC (t) = iline DC (t-)
t- t
iline AC (t) Due to the line rectifier:
iline DC (t) if 0tand

iline AC (t) =
-iline DC (t) if t0
For – t 0

iline AC (t) = -iline DC (t) = -iline DC (t-) = -(VeaoV1sin(t- + 0.5V1Veacos(t-) -
0.5V1Veacos3(t-))/Rs = (VeaoV1sint + 0.5V1Veacost - 0.5V1Veacos3t)/Rs
Therefore, for -t

iline AC (t) = (VeaoV1sint + 0.5V1Veacost - 0.5V1Veacos3t)/Rs
There are only components of  and 3
or Correction
Using only a RE (XI)
Looking for the maximum power compatible
with complying with the IEC 61000-3-2
Line current regulations in Class A (I)
fp1000 Hz
AR  50-100
AR Output ripple=1 % Output ripple=2 %
50 3680 W 3400 W
100 3400 W 1700 W
IEC 61000-3-2 regulations in Class A can be

complied up to very high power levels

or Correction
Using only a RE (XII)
Looking for the maximum power
compatible with complying with the IEC
61000-3-2 regulations in Class A (II)
Line current obtained  The theoretical and the simulated
by simulation waveforms are slightly different
3
AR = 100,  The cause is the output voltage
2 fC: 500 Hz ripple.
 Due to this, the actual ripple is
1 Theoretical not exactly sinusoidal
0 Simulated
AR Output ripple=1 % Output ripple=2 %
3
AR = 100,
fC: 1 kHz 50 3600 W 2500 W
2
100 2600 W 1300 W
1 Theoretical
Simulated
0
Compliance up to very high
power levels is achieved
or Correction
Using only a RE (XIII)
Can we get a very fast transient
response if we have a very fast
Power output voltage feedback loop?
Voltage
Current
Little (or no) power processed at

specific moments  no energy
DC/DC available to maintain the output
voltage when the output current
Output
converter
as
changes, except the energy
Resistor
Line
Emulator stored in the capacitor
Power supply
The dynamics depends on
the capacitor
No devices to store Energy
energy at 100 Hz stored here The capacitor is recharged
each 10ms (100 Hz)  the
faster response is 10 ms

or Correction
Using only a RE (XIV)
Simulating the dynamic response
fC = 10 Hz fC = 1kHz
Output voltage Output voltage
420 410
400
400
390
40 ms
380
380 90 ms 10 ms
370
4300 W 1700 W
360 360 2600 W 400 W
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (ms) Time (ms)
The output voltage takes 90 ms in The output voltage takes 10 ms in

recovering the steady state recovering the steady state

or Correction
Using only a RE (XV)
Resistor Emulator topologies: low power
Voltage
Current Flyback
based
Line Load
Power supply
(Electronic
circuitry)
Voltage
Current SEPIC
based
Load
Line (Electronic
Power supply
circuitry)

or Correction
Using only a RE (XVI) Resistor Emulator topologies: medium power
Current-fed Push-Pull based
Voltage
Current
Load
(Electronic
Line circuitry)
Power supply
Voltage
Current
Load
(Electronic
Line circuitry)
Power supply

or Correction
Using only a RE (XVII) Resistor Emulator topologies: high power
Current-fed Full-bridge based
Voltage
Current
Load
(Electronic
Line circuitry)
Power supply
Voltage
Current
Load
Line (Electronic
circuitry)
Power supply
or Correction
Using only a RE (XVIII)
Example of application: a power supply
for a 300 + 300 W audio amplifier (I)
Flyback based
+70 V 300 W audio

Line amplifier
(Channel Right)
85-250 V GND
300 W audio
Power supply amplifier
(Channel Left)
-70 V
 Universal line voltage

 Flyback with 2 Cool-MOS in parallel
 10 ms dynamic response is good enough for this application

or Correction
Using only a RE (XIX)
Example of application: a power supply
for a 300 + 300 W audio amplifier (II)
300 + 300 W audio

amplifier
Power supply
For Behringer
Developed at the
University of Oviedo
(GEI group)

or Correction
Using only a RE (XX) Experimental results: line waveforms
Resistor Emulator based on a 300 W boost converter
0.5 A/div 5ms/div 0.5 A/div 5ms/div
AR = 10 AR = 10
Simulated Result fC = 10 Hz Simulated Result fC = 1 kHz
0.5 A/div 5ms/div 0.5 A/div 5ms/div
Simulated Result AR = 25 fC = 1 kHz Simulated Result AR = 40 fC = 1 kHz

or Correction
Using only a RE (XXI) Experimental results: transient response
fC = 10 Hz
60 ms
1/3 Full load Full load
fC = 1kHz
10 ms
1/3 Full load Full load

or Correction
Using only a RE (XXII) Conclusions of the use of isolated Resistor
Emulators as the only conversion stage for
medium-speed response applications (I)
 Many applications do not need fast dynamic response. In

these cases conventional Resistor Emulators (like flyback)
can be used directly as power supply with no second stage
and with several advantages:
 Low cost and size (no second stage)

 Very low harmonic content
 Can be used in high and low power applications.
 Can be used with universal line voltage

or Correction
Using only a RE (XXIII) Conclusions of the use of isolated Resistor
medium-speed response applications (II)
 The limitations in the transient response are:
 The 100-120 Hz output voltage ripple only depends on the

capacitor value
 This ripple ripple cannot be reduced by increasing the

corner frequency of the output-voltage feedback loop
 The maximum effective corner frequency is about 1kHz

(10 times the ripple frequency)
 The minimum response time is 10-8.3 ms (one 100-120 Hz

cycle)

or Correction
Using only a RE (XXIV) Conclusions of the use of isolated Resistor
medium-speed response applications (III)
This solution should not be used if the output voltage is

relatively low (lower than 12 V) due to the fact that the bulk
capacitor is placed just at the output, which means:
 Energy stored at low voltage Large value of the

capacitor size
 High current levels passing through the capacitor

Large capacitor losses due to the ESR

or Correction
Outline
• Introduction
in Class D

applications
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (I) Can we improve the dynamic response
of a Resistor Emulator with a low
Line curent
fp: 1000 Hz
penalty in the converter efficiency?
Output voltage
fp: 10 Hz
DC/DC
Time (ms) 10
converter 90 ms
10 ms
60
40 20 40 60 80 100 120
20 Time (ms)
0 AR
-20 AR [dB]
-40
45 Lowpass
filter
0
-45
The minimum response time is
-90
AR [º] 10-8.3 ms (one 100-120 Hz cycle)
-135
1 10 100 1000 10000
f [Hz]
Another stage can be connected to
fp fp improve the transient response
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (II) Characteristic of the high-efficiency
post regulators
DC/DC High-
+
converter efficiency +
V1 post- VO Output
Line - regulators -
 Common characteristics of all high-

efficiency post-regulators:
Lowpass
filter
 Low additional cost and size
 Only a fraction of the total power
undergoes a power switching processing
 Very high efficiency: 96-98%

 No short-circuit protection in the post-
regulator
V 1 and VO are voltages of similar values

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (III) Use of the high-efficiency post regulators
in multiple-output applications
High-
+
Line efficiency +
V1 post- VO Output
fp: 10 Hz
- regulators -
fp: 1000 Hz
fp: 10 Hz
Lowpass
90 ms
filter
10 ms
fp: 1000 Hz
Some slow or medium-speed outputs and

some fast response outputs

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (IV) Operation principle of the high-
efficiency post regulators
VS
- +
DC/DC
converter + +
V1 VO Output
Line - -
High-efficiency
post-regulators
Lowpass
filter vS
vO
v1
How can we implement the
voltage source?
Time

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (V) Implementing the
voltage source VS (I)
Where should we
connect the input port
of this converter? ? Small
DC/DC
converter
DC/DC
+ - VS + +
converter
V1 VO Output
Line - -
High-efficiency
post-regulators
Lowpass
filter

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (VI) Implementing the
voltage source VS (II)
One additional
output
Small
DC/DC
converter
DC/DC
converter + - VS + +
V1 VO Output
Line - -
High-efficiency
post-regulators
Lowpass
filter
Option #1: connect the input port to an
additional Resistor Emulator output
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (VII) Implementing the voltage
source VS (III)
Small
DC/DC
converter
DC/DC
+ - VS + +
converter
V1 VO Output
Line - -
High-efficiency
post-regulators
Lowpass
filter Option #2: connect the input port to the
Resistor Emulator output

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (VIII) Implementing the voltage
source VS (IV)
Small Small
DC/DC DC/DC
converter converter
V2
+ - VS + + - VS + +
+
V1 VO V1 VO
- - - -
High-efficiency High-efficiency
post-regulators post-regulators
Option #1: connect the input Option #2: connect the input
port to an additional output of port to the Resistor
the Resistor Emulator Emulator output
Two-Input Buck (TIBuck) Series-Switching post-

Regulator (SSPR)
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (IX) Why is the efficiency of these post-
regulators very high?
vS
Small
DC/DC vO
converter v1
IO
DC/DC
+ - VS + + Time
converter
V1 VO
- - V1, VO >> VS 
High-efficiency
post-regulators P1, PO >> PS 
Lowpass The “Small DC/DC converter” is processing

filter only a small part of the output power
Low losses in the post-regulator 
High efficiency post-regulator

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (X) Why is not possible to implement a
over-load or short-circuit protection
in these post-regulators?
Small
DC/DC
converter
IO A over-load occurs
DC/DC
+ - VS + +
converter
V1 0
VO
- - If VS = 0,
High-efficiency then VO = V1  0
post-regulators
Lowpass The over-load or short-circuit

filter
protection must be implemented
in the Resistor Emulator

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XI) Introducing the Two-Input Buck
(TIBuck)
Small
DC/DC
converter
V2
+ - VS + +
V1 VO
- -
High-efficiency DC/DC converter
post-regulators V2
+
VS +
-
VO
This is a Buck converter with +
V1
two inputs instead of one - -
High-efficiency
post-regulators
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XII) Single-output Resistor Emulator
based on a Flyback + a TIBuck
post-regulator
V2
+
VO
+ -
V1
-
Standard
controller
Resistor TIBuck
Emulator post-regulators
controller

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XIII) Multiple-output Resistor Emulator
based on a Flyback + a TIBuck
post-regulator
-
V4
+
V2 +
VO
+ -
V1
-
Standard
+ controller
V3
- TIBuck
post-regulators
Resistor
Emulator
controller

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XIV) Comparing Buck and TIBuck
converters
+ VQ - V1 > VO
+ VO VQMAX = V1
VD
V1 VDMAX = V1
- VO = V1d
Buck
(d is the duty cycle)
+ VQ -
+ V2 > VO > V1
V2 VD VO VQMAX = V2-V1
- VDMAX = V2-V1
V1 VO = V2d + V1(1-d)
TIBuck (from volts-second balance)
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XV) DC equivalent circuit
for the TIBuck
VO= V2d + V1(1-d) = (V2-V1)d + V1
Controlled (V2-V1)d
VO Regulated
Poorly
regulated
V1
PWM -
+

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XVI) Relationship between input
and output voltages (I)
+ VQ -
Voltages
+
V2 range V2 VD VO
VO -
V1
V1 range
Time PWM -
+
ALWAYS
V2 > VO > V1

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XVII) Relationship between input
and output voltages (II)
Case of being used as post-regulator of a Resistor Emulator
Voltages
v2 V2
VO
Transient response v1 +
Steady state + VO
V1 -
-
Time
ALWAYS V2 > VO > V1, taking into account the

worse case of transient response and ripple
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XVIII) Comparing filter inductance for
Buck and TIBuck converters (I)
LB
VFilter
+ VO V1
VO
V1 VFilter
- Time
Buck
LTB
+ VFilter
VO V2
V2 VO
V1
VFilter
Time
V1 Lower value in the case of

- the TIBuck converter (in
TIBuck practice, 3 times lower)
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XIX) Comparing filter inductance for
Buck and TIBuck converters (II)
Boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction modes
KCRIT
• CCM: 2L/RT > KCRIT 1
• DCM: 2L/RT < KCRIT Buck
Buck: K CRIT  (1  d)
TIBuck
d(1  d)(V2 /V1  1) V2 / V1=4
TIBuck: K CRIT  3
d( V2 /V1  1)  1
2
1.25
Lower value in the case
0
0 d 1
of the TIBuck converter
(duty cycle)

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XX) Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (I)
Realistic case for a Buck converter:
VG = 100 V R VOB VOB = 50 V

IG = 1 A VG IO = 1.8 A
PG = 100 W Buck POB = 90 W
d = 0.55 R = VOB/IO = 27.8 
PLosses = 10 W
= 90 / 100 = 90%

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXI) Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (II)
d = 0.55
PLosses = 10 W
VG = 100 V
VOB VOB = 50 V
IG = 1 A IO = 1.8 A
PG = 100 W VG
Buck POB = 90 W
V1 = 300 V V1 IO R1 IO = 1.8 A
IO
IO = 1.8 A V1 = 300 V
P1 = 540 W IO = 1.8 A  R1 = V1/IO = 166.7 
P1 = 540 W
We are processing 540 W FREE !!
 = (90 + 540) / (100 + 540) = 98.4 %

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXII) Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (III)
VG = 100 V VOB = 50 V
IG = 1 A IO = 1.8 A
PG = 100 W d = 0.5 27.8  POB = 90 W
IO = 1.8 A 166.7  IO = 1.8 A

V1 = 300 V
P1 = 540 W V1 = 300 V
P1 = 540 W
d = 0.5
I2
I 2 = IG = 1 A
I1 = IO- IG = 0.8 A 194.5  IO = 1.8 A
V2 = VG+ V1= 400 V V2
VO = VOB+ V1= 350 V
P2 = 400 W I1 PO = POB+ P1= 630 W
P1 = 240 W V1
Pi = P2 + P1 =640
 = 630 / 640 = 98.4%
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXIII) Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (IV)
VO VO-V1
V2 V2 – V1
V1 V1 V1
VO-V1
V2 – V1
V1 V1
VO-V1
V2 – V 1
The closer V2 and V1 (and,
V1 V1
therefore VO) the higher
the efficiency
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXIV) Explaining the high efficiency of
the TIBuck converter (V)
B is the Buck-part efficiency

VO-V1 B
TB 
V2 – V 1 V1
1- (1- B )
VO
V1
TB=1 V1
TB is the TIBuck efficiency TIbuck efficiency

100
90%
TB=96.6%
85%
High efficiency TIbuck 80 75%
with a limited efficiency
in the Buck part 60 B =50%
0.4 0.6 0.8 1

V1/VO

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXV) Small-signal transfer functions of
the TIBuck converter
The quantities with hats LTB VO

are the perturbations V2 R
CTB
V1
d̂
V2-V1
v̂ 2 + 1
+ v̂ O
D L TB
CTBL TB s2  s1
+ R
v̂1 Output filter
1- D
Similar to the case of a Buck converter, but faster due

to the lower values of the output filter components
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXVI)
Implementing the transistor driver
Requirements:
Galvanic isolation
 Wide duty cycle operation

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXVII)
Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (I)
TIBuck DC/DC post-regulators
V2 V1 VO IO LTB CTB fS
TIBuck 1 440-400 V 360-320 V 380 V 1-0.1 A 1 mH 250 nF 100 kHz
TIBuck 2 67-57 V 52-42 V 54.5 V 4-0.4 A 51.4 H 4.7 F 100 kHz

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXVIII)
Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (II)
TIBuck 1: overall efficiency
Efficiency [%]
100
V2=440V
V1=360V
99 V2=400V
V2=420V V1=320V
V1=340V
98
100 200 300

Output power [W]

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXIX) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (III)
TIBuck 1 efficiency with V2 & V1 variable, V2-V1 =80 V, VO=(V1+V2)/2
Efficiency [%]
V2
100
VO 380,300,340
280,200 V2 = 180 V
V1 95 240 V1 = 100 V
VO = 140 V
V2 = 80 V
90 V1 = 0 V
VO = 40 V
Being V2-V1 a constant, the 85
closer V2 and V1 (and, therefore 0 500 100
VO) the higher the efficiency 0
Output current [mA]

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXX) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (IV)
TIBuck 1 and Buck-part efficiencies
Efficiency [%]
100
B is the Buck-part efficiency TIBuck
TIBuck
VO-V1 (measured) (calculated)
V2 – V1
90 Buck-part
(measured)
V1
=1 V1
80
TB is the TIBuck efficiency
B
TB  70
V1 200 400 600
1- (1- B ) Output current [mA)]
VO
The experimental results fit very well with the calculated ones

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXI) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (V)
TIBuck 2: overall efficiency and small-signal modelling
Efficiency [%] Gain [dB] , phase

100 40
Theoretical
0º
96 20
Measured
-90
92 0
Theoretical
0 100 200 -180º
Output power [W] -20
100 1,000 10,000
Frequency [Hz]

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXII) Experimental results of
Resistor Emulator based on a TIBuck-based prototypes (VI)
Flyback converter + TIBuck 2
25CPF40 51.4H
IRF7403
24 t 3t 1.5mF 10 54V
85-264V T045
4A
9t 4.7F
1.5mF
IRFPC50
UC3825
Overall efficiency [%]
UC3854
Transient response
88
220V
V2 5V/div
IO 86
0.01A/s 110V
VO 1V/div 2.1A 3.23A
84
80 120 160 200
200 ms/div Output power [W]
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXIII) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (VII)
Voltage ripple cancellation in the case of the Resistor

Emulator based on a Flyback converter + TIBuck 2
51.4H
V2 IRF7403 Voltage ripples
+ V2 2V/div.
V1 10T045
VO
4.7F
-
VO 0.5V/div.
UC3825
V1 2V/div.
Voltage-Mode control
Can we improve the
ripple cancellation?

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXIV) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (VIII)
Other TIBuck control methods to improve the voltage ripple cancellation
Input voltage feedforward

Current mode control (average current mode control)
Input voltage feedforward

51.4H
V2 IRF7403
+ V1 + V2 + V
10T045
+ dc
Rext
V1 R1 R2 Cext
VO
4.7F
-
vC
UC3825
UC3825 Feedforward
Feedforward implementation

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXV) Experimental results of
TIBuck-based prototypes (IX)
Average current mode control Voltage ripples

V2 2V/div.
51.4H
V2 IRF7403
10T045
+ VO 2mV/div.
V1
VO
4.7F
- V1 2V/div.
Transient response
UC3825
V2 (5 V/div)
TL082
Voltage ripple attenuation  IO

0.01A/s VO (20 mV/div)
66dB (1900 times). Also, 3.23A
2.1A
excellent transient response
100 ms/div
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXVI) Introducing the option #2: Series-
Switching Post-Regulator (SSPR)
Small
DC/DC
converter
Small DC/DC
converter
+ - VS + +
+ - VS +
V1 VO +
- V1 VO
-
- -
High-efficiency
post-regulators Re-drawing
Option #2: connect the input
port to the Resistor -
Emulator output VS
+ +
V1 Small DC/DC +
Series-Switching post- - converter VO
Regulator (SSPR) -
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXVII) Introducing the SSPR based
on a Forward converter
-
VS
+ +
V1 Small DC/DC +
- converter VO
-
+
Re-placing the V1 Small DC/DC +
capacitor converter VO
-
-
Controller
-
VS
+ +
V1 +
Small DC/DC
converter
The controlled output
- VO
voltage is VO instead of VS
-

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXVIII) Other SSPR implementations
Implementation based on a Flyback
+ n1 n2
V1 +
Small DC/DC
Small DC/DC - converter VO
converter
-
+ - VS + +
V1 VO Controller
- -
If n1=n2
 The implementation based on a Flyback

+
becomes a Boost converter if n1=n2 +
V1
 A Boost converter has a very high - VO
efficiency if the input and output voltages -
are very close Controller
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XXXIX) Single-output Resistor
Emulator based on a Flyback
+ a Forward-type SSPR
+
V1 +
- VO
-
Standard
controller
Resistor
Emulator
controller
Forward-type SSPR

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XL) Multiple-output Resistor
Emulator based on a Flyback
+ a Forward-type SSPR
-
V3
+
+
V1 +
- VO
-
+ Standard
V2 controller
-
Forward-type SSPR
Resistor
Emulator
controller

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLI) Computing SSPRs efficiency (I)
I1 IO - VS + IO
+ IiDC Small DC/DC +

V1 converter
VO
C
- -
SSPR PWM
-
+
ss
VO = V1 + VS
I1 = IiDC + IO VO·IO 1+KS
SS = = Being KS=VS/V1
V1·I1 KS
VS·IO 1+ 
C = C
V1·IiDC
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLII) Computing SSPRs efficiency (II)
SS [%]
Example:
100
C = 80%
95
0.2
0.1 ss = 97.7%
KS = VS/V1 = 0.1
90
KS=0.3 The lower KS, the higher the efficiency
85
KS=VS/V1
80 Voltages
60 70 80 90 100 vO
c [%]
vS vSmax
Transient
Steady response
However, VS must reaches VSmax v1 state
and must be always positive
Time
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLIII) Experimental results of a
Forward-type SSPR (I)
11DQ10
E20
12CTQ045 -
+ 47H, E20
V S = 7.5V
+
V1 = 47V 6,800F
28 : 28 : 15 +
VO= 54.5 V
SMP20N20 47F
IO = 4 A
- fS = 100 kHz -
Efficiency [%]
98
97
96 Output power [W]
95
0 50 100 150 200 250

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLIV) Experimental results of a
Forward-type SSPR (II)
Average current mode control
Voltage ripples
V1 (1V/div)
+
VO (10mV/div)
V1 +
VO
- - 10 ms/div
(Attenuation  50dB)
UC3825
TL082 Transient response
V1 (5V/div)
IO
0.01A/s
3.67A
1.83A VO (20mV/div)
200 ms/div
or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLV) Conclusions of the use of High-
efficiency post-regulators to
improve the transient response
of Resistors Emulators (I)
 Low additional cost and size

 Low output voltage ripple and fast dynamic response
 Very high post-regulator efficiency (96-98%)
 Very low harmonic content
 Can be used in high and low power applications
 Can be used with universal line voltage
 Very interesting for multiple-output applications with
different transient response specifications

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLVI) Conclusions of the use of High-
efficiency post-regulators to
improve the transient response
of Resistors Emulators (II)
 V and V are voltages of similar values

1 O
 It is not a good solution for low output voltage applications

because the energy is stored near the output voltage
 No short-circuit and/or overload protection can be

implemented in the post-regulator (it must be implemented in
the Resistor Emulator)
 However, short-circuit overcurrent from the bulk capacitor

can be diverted through an additional diode (see next slide)

or Correction
High-efficiency post-regulators (XLVII)
Additional diode to divert short-
circuit overcurrent from the bulk
Small
capacitor
DC/DC
converter
The overcurrent is
diverted by the diode Da
+ - VS + +
V1 Da VO
- overcurrent - V2
CB2 +
High-efficiency Da
post-regulators VO
+
V1 CB1 -
-
+ Da
The drive pulses must be
V1 + maintained to discharge CB2
VO
- - CB1is discharged through
The drive pulses must be eliminated the additional diode Da

or Correction
Outline
• Introduction
in Class D

applications
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (I) Standard Two-Stage approach (I)
• High voltage
• Almost-constant voltage 
Low bulk capacitor size
Current DC Bus
Resistor
Conventional
Emulator
Line DC/DC
(Boost
converter Load
converter)
Current -
Feedback-Loop
Voltage
-
Voltage
Feedback-Loop 2 Feedback-Loop 1

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (II) Standard Two-Stage approach (II)
DC Bus
Current
Resistor
Conventional
Emulator
Line DC/DC
(Boost
converter) converter Load
Current -
Feedback-Loop -
Voltage Voltage
Compliance with IEC 1000-3-2

Expensive
Fast output voltage response
DC bus regulated (interesting Low efficiency?
Not for universal line
for 85-264V ac )
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (III) Introducing Single-Stage PFCs (I)
DC Bus
Current
Resistor
Emulator Conventional
Line DC/DC
(Boost
converter) converter Load
Current -
Feedback-Loop
Voltage
-
Voltage
Single-Stage
DC Bus Load
Current Line PFC
Voltage
-
Feedback-Loop
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (IV) Introducing Single-Stage PFCs (II)
Single-Stage
DC Bus Load
Current Line PFC
Voltage
-
 Compliance with IEC 1000-3-2 Feedback-Loop
 Fast output voltage response

 Cheap  DC bus unregulated (not very
interesting for 85-264 V)
 Energy stored at high voltage

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (V) Introducing Single-Stage PFCs (III)
Current
ZS
Previous methods to increase
DC/DC
the conduction angle Line
converte
r
Simple passive components

R
Line DC/DC
converte
r
A resistor
L
Line DC/DC
converte An inductor
r

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (VI) Introducing Single-Stage PFCs (IV)
ZS
Current
DC/DC
Line
converte
r
Could we find a small-size lossless impedance ZS?

 Lossless Based on inductors
 Small size  Working at the switching frequency
 Small size nly diodes (no transistors) It is an additional output
DC/DC
Line converte
r
Current

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (VII) Introducing Single-Stage PFCs (V)
Equivalent circuit
for many S2PFC
+
HIAN Magnetic
- device
Current Load
Conventional
Line Bulk
DC/DC
capacitor
converter
HIAN: High Impedance Active Network -

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (VIII) Example of topological transformations (I)
HIAN
DCM
DC/DC
converter
HIAN
DCM
DC/DC
Converter
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (IX) Example of topological transformations (II)
DCM nS
n1 n2
nS n1 n2
DCM
nS’ = n1-nS
nS ’ Presented at INTELEC 96
n2
by F. S. Tsai, P. Markowski
n1
DCM & E. Whitcomb

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (X) Example of topological transformations (III)
nS n1 n2
DCM
nS = n1
nS=n1 n2
DCM
Presented at PESC 94 by R. Redl, L. Balog and N. Sokal

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XI) Examples of HIAN (I)
LF in DCM LF in CCM Ld
+ +
- -
#1. One inductor (in DCM) #2. Two inductors
 Only 1 inductor Low current and

voltage stress
 Either high current +
HIAN
or voltage stress (it
will be explained later)
-  2 inductors
DC/DC
converter

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XII) Examples of HIAN (II)
LF in CCM
One inductor (in DCM) Ld
+
LF in DCM
-
+
LF in CCM Ld1
Two +
- inductors -
LF in DCM Ld2
+ LF in CCM
-
+
Ld
-

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XIII) Generalization
IHIAN HIAN
- +
VHIAN
Conventional
Rectifier
DC/DC
Filter Delaying
converter inductor inductor
IHIAN LF
Ld
+
VHIAN
-
HIAN
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XIV) Cases to study:
1st) only LF and in DCM (DCM1)
IHIAN HIAN IHIAN LF

+
VHIAN nS n1
- + -
VHIAN
Conventional (a)
DC/DC IHIAN LF
converter
+
VHIAN nS n1
Design parameters: - (b)

• Ld = 0 IHIAN
LF
• LF in DCM +
VHIAN nS
• n1/nS -
n1
nS
(c)
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XV) Cases to study:
2nd) two inductors, LF in CCM
IHIAN HIAN IHIAN LF Ld
+
- + VHIAN nS
VHIAN n1
Conventional -
DC/DC (d)
IHIAN
LF
converter
Ld
+
VHIAN nS n1
Design parameters: - (e)
• Ld IHIAN LF Ld
+
• K = LF/Ld VHIAN nS
-
n1
• n1/nS nS
(f)
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XVI) Cases to study:
3rd) only Ld (DCM2)
IHIAN HIAN IHIAN Ld

+
VHIAN nS n1
- + -
VHIAN (g)
Conventional
IHIAN
DC/DC
+ Ld
converter
VHIAN nS n1
- (h)
Design parameters: IHIAN Ld1
• LF = 0 +
VHIAN nS
• Ld - n1
Ld2 nS
(i)
• n1/nS
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XVII) Cases to study:
From: Two more HIANs
IHIAN 4·Ld , IHIAN/2 IHIAN 4·Ld , IHIAN/2
+ +
VHIAN VHIAN
- -
(e’) (h’)
similar to similar to
IHIAN IHIAN
Ld , IHIAN Ld , IHIAN
+ +
VHIAN VHIAN
- -
(e) (h)

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XVIII) Focusing the analysis (I):
We need:
IHIAN HIAN •To choose the HIAN
according the application
requirements
ig(t) - +
VHIAN • To calculate the value of
Conventional
Vg(t) the inductor(s) in order to
VC DC/DC
have a line current harmonic
converter
content below the values
specified in the IEC 61000-3-
2
How can we establish a relationship between the HIAN and the line
current harmonic content?
Equations:
VHIAN = Vc - |Vg(t)|
IHIAN = f(VHIAN) This is the Voltage-Current Characteristic, VCC
ig(t) = IHIAN if Vg(t) > 0 and ig(t) = -IHIAN if Vg(t) < 0

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XIX) Focusing the analysis (II):
Therefore: we need to determine the Voltage-Current Characteristic,

VCC, for each HIAN
IHIAN = f(VHIAN)
IHIN HIAN
- +
VHIAN
Conventional
VC DC/DC
converter
Considerations for the study:

Vc and the converter duty cycle “d” considered constant each line half-cycle

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XX) Previous design considerations (I)
 The variation of Vc should be as low as possible 

VHIAN(IHIAN average max) as low as possible HIAN with Ld.
VHIAN(IHIAN average max)

IHIAN average
IHIAN IHIAN LF
LF Ld
+ Ld=0 +
VHIAN VHIAN
- Ld0
(a)
-
VHIAN
LF
nS LF nS The case Ld=0 is
n1
n1 not desirable
(b) nS
(c) (cases a, b and c)
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXI) Previous design considerations (II)
 The current stress in the DC/DC converter should be as

low as possible
LF in DCM
LF in DCM
nS n1
nS n1
(b)
(a)
For this reason, the case Ld=0 is not
LF in DCM desirable again (cases a, b and c)
LF nS
n1
nS
(c) The total inductor size should be
as small as possible

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXII) Voltage-Current Characteristics
(calculated from IHIAN average)
IHIAN LF>>Ld
Ld Results after solving the operation equations:
+
VHIAN IHIAN average
20
- Case e
IHIAN LF<<Ld 15
Ld
+ LF>>Ld
VHIAN 10
- Case e
5
IHIAN LF<<Ld
Ld LF=0
+
0
VHIAN 0 20 40 60 80 100
- Case h VHIAN
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXIII) Input current waveforms (examples)
obtained from the previous Voltage-
Current Characteristics
Voltage-Current Characteristics Line waveforms
IHIAN average IHIAN average
20 20
15 15 LF>>Ld
LF>>Ld
10
10
5
LF<<Ld LF=0 5 LF<<Ld
LF=0
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0
VHIAN 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
line angle
IHIAN depends on VHIAN , LF , Ld and also on d, n1/nS and VC
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXIV) Comparing Voltage-Current
Characteristics calculated from IHIAN average
and from IHIAN peak
IHIAN IHIAN
20 20
LF=0 LF=0
15 IHIAN peak 15 IHIAN peak
10
IHIAN average 10 IHIAN average
5
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
VHIAN
line angle
VCCaverage: to determine low-frequency harmonics
VCCpeak: to determine size of magnetics and component

stress
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXV) Examples of VCCaverage and VCCpeak for
different HIAN
The values of Vc, d, n1/nS and Ld are the same for all the examples
K = LF/Ld
LF Ld K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
+ IHIAN peak
VHIAN
IHIAN average
-
LF
Ld K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
+
VHIAN
-
LF Ld
+ K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
VHIAN
-
Ld

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXVI) Conclusions from the previous examples (I)
Higher K values have no effect in IHIAN peak

K = LF/Ld
LF Ld K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
+ IHIAN peak
VHIAN
IHIAN average
-
LF
Ld K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
+
VHIAN
-
LF Ld
+ K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
VHIAN
-
Ld

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXVII) Conclusions from the previous examples (II)
Due to the same reason, LF is not necessary

K = LF/Ld
LF Ld K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
+ IHIAN peak
VHIAN
IHIAN average
-
LF
Ld K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
+
VHIAN
-
LF Ld
+ K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
VHIAN
-
Ld

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXVIII) Conclusions from the previous examples (III)
Higher impedance in the case of full-wave rectifier 

lower Ld values for the same impedance
K = LF/Ld
LF Ld K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
+ IHIAN peak
VHIAN
IHIAN average
-
LF
Ld K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
+
VHIAN
-
LF Ld
+ K=0 K = 0.1 K=1 K = 10
VHIAN
-
Ld

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXIX) Optimum design of an example
 Flyback as DC/DC converter
 Pout = 100 W
 Vout = 54 V
 European AC voltage (190-265)

 IEC 61000-3-2, Class D
 Maximum duty = 0.35
 33 W as limit between CCM and DCM
 Switching frequency = 100 kHz

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXX) Total size of magnetic elements for the
previous example
K=LF/Ld
K=0 K=0.1 K=0.5 K=1 K=2 K=10
LF Ld
Ld (H) 70 542 268 268 291 353
LF (H) 0 54.2 134 268 582 3530
(d)
Ix2·Lx (J) 943 1488 1003 1338 2179 9693
LF
Ld
Ld (H) 47.8 221 76.5 105.7 87.2 92.7
(e)
LF (H) 0 22.1 38.25 105.7 174.4 927
Ix2·Lx (J) 424.5 770.2 440.8 603.7 773.9 2676
LF Ld
Ld (H) 185.2 167 174.4 178.7 182.5 167.1
LF (H) 0 16.7 87.2 178.7 365 1671
(f) Ld
Ix2·Lx (J) 1107 1086 1213 1424 1845 5133
GOOD GOOD

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXXI) Voltage and current stress for
the previous example
K=LF/Ld 0 0.1 0.5 1 2 10

LF Ld
VC_max (V) 423 540 425 413 415 415
(d) IS_peak (A) 2.53 3.14 2.48 2.41 2.39 2.42
LF VC_max (V) 437 560 420 420 414 416
Ld
(e) IS_peak (A) 2.24 2.7 2 2 1.97 1.93
LF Ld VC_max (V) 420 415 418 419 418 420
IS_peak (A) 2 1.98 1.95 1.94 1.93 1.89

(f) Ld
GOOD GOOD

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXXII) Summary of “good” designs for
the previous example (I)
Flyback as DC/DC converter
Pout = 100W LF Ld
Vout = 54V
European AC voltage (190-265) +
IEC 61000-3-2, Class D VHIAN nS n1
Maximum duty 0.35 -
33 W as limit between CCM and DCM
Switching frequency 100kHz
K=LF/Ld 0.5 1
n1/nS 1.813 1.875
VC_max (V) 425 413
Ld (H) 268 268
LF (H) 134 268
Ix2·Lx (J) 1003 1338
Interesting for Forward DC/DC converters

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXXIII) Summary of “good” designs for
the previous example (II)
Pout = 100W LF
Vout = 54V Ld
European AC voltage (190-265) +
IEC 61000-3-2, Class D
Maximum duty 0.35 VHIAN nS n1
-
K=LF/Ld 0.5 1
LF 4·Ld
n1/nS 3.125 2.625 +
VC_max (V) 420 420 VHIAN nS
- n1
Ld (H) 76.5 105.7 nS
LF (H) 38.25 105.7
Ix2·Lx (J) 440.8 603.7
Interesting for all DC/DC converters, except Forward

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXXIV) Summary of “good” designs for
the previous example (III)
Pout = 100W Ld
Vout = 54V
European AC voltage (190-265)
+
IEC 61000-3-2, Class D
VHIAN nS
Maximum duty 0.35 - n1
nS
Ld
K=LF/Ld 0
n1/nS 2.875
VC_max (V) 420
Ld (H) 185.2
Ix2·Lx (J) 1107
Interesting for all DC/DC converters, except Forward

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXXV) Analysing the high-frequency harmonics
 Full-wave HIANs are better than the half-wave one

 Comparing full-wave HIANs:
High-frequency ripple at /2 (A)
K=0 LF
Ld
+
Better
VHIAN
0.2
- LF Ld
K=0.5 +
VHIAN
-
Ld
0.1 K=0
K=1
K=2 K=0.5
The HIAN type “e” is K=1 K=2
the most interesting
500 1000 1500 2000
from this point of view
Ix2·Lx (J)
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXXVI) The lossless resistor model (I)
IHIAN HIAN
- +
VHIAN
Conventional
DC/DC
converter
Is there any simple model for the HIAN?

Yes, if LF >>Ld

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXXVII) The lossless resistor model (II)
If LF >>Ld IHIAN
ILd
D1
(small line current ripple)
Vi + + Vi
Vi1 LF + Ld
VHIAN
VD2
- D2
-
VD2 VHIAN = Vi1·(d – fS·td) =
Vi1·(d – fS·Ld·IHIAN/Vi1) =
IHIAN Vi1·d – fS·Ld·IHIAN
ILd VHIAN = VS – RLF·iHIAN
td
iHIAN
t=d/fS
1/fS - VHIAN +
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXXVIII) The lossless resistor model (III)
LF Ld
Loss-free resistor
VS RLF = Ld·fs
If LF>>Ld
DC/DC DC/DC
converter converter
Input current After analysing the circuit using this model:
Compliance at 220V: C>67.5º
C Compliance at 230V: C>64.5º
(in Class D)
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XXXIX) The lossless resistor model (IV)
IHIAN
ILd Vi Vi1
+ LF + Vi
Ld d·TS
VD
VHIAN
VD Vp1
- -
If LF>>Ld: + IHIAN
VHIAN = 2·Vi1·d - 4·Ld·fS ·iHIAN iLd

- IHIAN
td TS
VHIAN = VS - RLF · iHIAN
The same model is valid for
the rest of the HIAN based
on two inductors if LF>>Ld
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XL) Comparing different HIAN based on
the lossless resistor model
LF Ld case d
+ + LF
Ld
Case (d)
- -
Case (e)
WLd case d = 0.5·Ld case d· iHIAN2 Ld = 0.25·Ld case d
(Energy, size) WLd = 0.25·WLd case d
Used as reference
+ LF
+ L Ld -
F
- Ld
Ld = 0.5·Ld case d Ld Ld = Ld case d
WLd = 0.5·WLd case d WLd = 0.25·WLd case d

Case (f) Case (e’)
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XLI) Set of equations to design with the
lossless resistor model
VS RLF
• Current waveforms: DC/DC VDC

Vgsint converter
· If vg< (VC-VS)  ig= 0 VC
· If vg> (VC-VS)  ig= (vg+VS-VC)/RLF

• Conduction angle: c = 2·cos-1((VC-VS)/Vg)
• Power balance: Pg = (C-sinC)·Vg2/(2·RLF)
•Output voltage VDC : VDC = f1(VC, d)
•Voltage VS : VS = f2(VC, d)
From this set of equations, we obtain:

 Voltage across bulk capacitor, VC
 Voltage across semiconductors (from VC)
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XLII) Integrating delaying and filter
inductor into one magnetic core (I)
LF Ld
+
VHIAN Vi
-
Vi
Ld
Only one mag. core
Can we integrate filter and delaying inductors into

only one magnetic core?

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XLIII) Integrating delaying and filter
inductor into one magnetic core (II)
Process of integration Llk1 Llk2

1:n
Lm
Llk1 Llk2= Llk1 Two-winding inductor
a
1:1
b
Lm
c
Two-winding Llk1 Llk1
inductor with r/t 1:1 a b
Equivalent Lm
circuit c
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XLIV) Integrating delaying and filter
inductor into one magnetic core (III)
Example: Two-winding, top-bottom arrangement (coupling not very tight)
Winding #1
Lm=LF Llk1=Ld
c a E Core a
Llk1=Ld
b b
E Core
One mag. core
Winding #2
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XLV) Examples of a converter with HIAN (I)
HIAN
“case d” Ld
Load
Line Bulk
capacitor Flyback

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XLVI) Examples of a converter with HIAN (II)
Ld
HIAN “case e” LF
Load
Line
Half-Bridge
Bulk
capacitor

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XLVII) Examples of a converter with HIAN
(III)
HIAN “case e’ ” L LD
Load
Line
Half-Bridge
Bulk
capacitor

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XLVIII) Examples of a converter with HIAN (IV)
HIAN LF
“case e” Ld
Load
Line
Bulk
capacitor
Flyback

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (XLIX) Examples of a converter with HIAN (V)
HIAN with
magnetic
integration
Load
Line
Bulk
capacitor
Flyback

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (L) Experimental results with K=LF/Ld=0.5 (I)
Flyback, 100 W, HIAN “case e” (4 diodes)
 Ld=76.5 H (E16)
 LF=38 H (E12)
 Efficiency 87%
 Class D

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LI) Experimental results with K=LF/Ld=0.5 (II)
 Ld=76.5 H (E16)
 LF=38 H (E12)
 Efficiency 87%
 Class D

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LII) Experimental results with K=LF/Ld=1 (I)
 Ld=105 H (E16)
 LF=105 H (E16)
 Efficiency 87%
 Class D

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LIII) Experimental results with K=LF/Ld=1 (II)
 Ld=105 H (E16)
 LF=105 H (E16)
 Efficiency 87%
 Class D

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LIV) Experimental results with K=LF/Ld>1 (I)
Half-bridge prototype
+ Different
HIANs
- BYW51 200H
20t 50V dc
0.47F
15t
20F
190-265V 47F
25-100W
rms 32t 15t
0.47F
BYW51
SPP11N60S5
fS = 100kHz (Cool MOS)

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LV) Experimental results with K=LF/Ld>1 (II)
+
Different
Flyback
HIANs
- prototype
14t 25CPF40
28t
33F
190-265V
47F 12t 50V dc
25-100W
fS = 100kHz IRFPC50

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LVI) Experimental results with K=LF/Ld>1 (III)
Implementations of the HIAN

IEC 61000-3-2 Class D, 100W, 190-265V 700H (E20)
+ 250H (E16)
700H (E20)
125H (E16) -
+ #2 250H (E16)
#1 MUR160
-
MUR140
1.3mH (E30)
700H (E20)
+
+ MUR160
- 500H (E16) -
#3 MUR160 #4 top-bottom
108 turns,
Llk= 250H
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LVII) Experimental results with K=LF/Ld>1 (IV)
Half-bridge prototype: Input-

current waveforms & harmonics
Vg= 190V rms
Input current [A]

0.5A/div 0.4
Pg=112W
IEC 61000-3-2
PF= 0.795 Class D
0.2 THD= 60.4% measured
Vg= 230V rms
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
1A/div
nth harmonic

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LVIII) Experimental results with K=LF/Ld>1 (V)
Flyback prototype: Input-

current waveform & harmonics
Vg= 230V rms
0.5A/div Input current [A]

0.4
Pg=107.5W
IEC 61000-3-2
0.2 Class D
measured
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
nth harmonic
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LIX) Experimental results with K=LF/Ld>1 (VI)
Half-bridge with HIAN Flyback with HIAN

(only power stage) (complete converter)
Efficiency [%]
Efficiency [%]
100 90
190V rms
95 190V rms 230V 85
230V
265V rms
90 265V rms 80
85 With HIAN types 75

#1, #2 & #3 With HIAN type #1
80 70
40 60 80 100 40 60 80 100
Input power [W] Input power [W]

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LX) Experimental results with K=LF/Ld>1 (VII)
Half-bridge with HIAN Flyback with HIAN
Bulk cap. voltage [V] Bulk cap. voltage [V]
500 500
Theoretical 265V rms
450
265V rms 400
+ 230V rms
+ +
400 +
300 X X X
230V rms X
350 190V rms
200 Flyback transformer
300 190V rms
in DCM
250 Experimental results 100 +
X } Experimental results
Theoretical
200 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Input power [W] Input power [W]
The maximum voltage across the bulk capacitor is lower than 450V
or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LXI) Conclusions of the use of Single-Stage PFC (I)
 Many Single-Stage PFCs can be described as an arrangement

made up of a line rectifier, a conventional DC/DC converter and a
High Impedance Active Network (HIAN)
 This HIAN is an additional output of the DC/DC converter that

re-cycles a part of energy
 Using Single-Stage PFC based on the use of HIANs we achieve:
 Low cost and size (no second stage)

 The energy is stored at high voltage moderate bulk capacitor
size
 A harmonic content low enough to comply with the IEC 61000-

3-2 in Class A and Class D

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LXII) Conclusions of the use of Single-Stage PFC
(II)
 Only a few of energy is re-cycled to get compliance with the

regulations High efficiency is achieved
 Many different HIAN implementations are possible. To

comply with the regulations in Class D, those based on two
inductors are the most attractive.
 The size of the additional inductors are very small (e.g. two
E16 cores for a 100 W converter). Moreover, both inductors
can be integrated into only one magnetic core
 The variation of the voltage across the bulk capacitor when

the line voltage and the load change is reasonable (maximum
voltage below 450 V DC when the line is 265 V AC)

or Correction
Single–Stage PFCs (LXIII) Conclusions of the use of
Single-Stage PFC (III)
 Fast output response due to the location where the DC/DC

converter is placed
 The main limitations are:

 The voltage across the bulk capacitor is not regulated. This
facts deteriorates the DC/DC converter efficiency.
 Due to the same fact, the operation with universal line is

not adequate
 However, for the universal line voltage range, a voltage

doubler with a mechanical switch can be implemented to allow
operation in this condition (this has not been explained here)

or Correction
Outline
• Introduction
in Class D

applications
or Correction
Very simple shaping (I) Objective: A new low-cost method to
control PFC in CCM
Power Output
Line Factor
Corrector
Current
Feedback-Loop
Voltage
- Previous methods:
Feedback-Loop
 Control based on an
Control circuitry analog multiplier
 Voltage-Follower
Control
or Correction
Very simple shaping (II)
Types of control: control
based on an analog multiplier
DC/DC
converter
 In CCM
 Perfect PF & THD
 Low losses in
the transistor
Low-Pass
filter  Current sensor
 Multiplier
 More expensive
or Correction
Very simple shaping (III)
Types of control:
Voltage-Follower Control
“High ZO”
dc-to-dc
converter  No current sensor
 No multiplier
 Cheaper
 Lower losses in the

diode
Low-Pass  Only high-output-
filter impedance topologies
(converters in DCM)
 Sometimes THD
 Higher total losses

or Correction
Very simple shaping (IV) Comparing semiconductor currents
for both control methods (I)
Example: battery charger based on a Flyback
Vinput: 85-265 Vac VOutput: 10-14 V IOutput: 3-10 A
CCM 4.36 A
66.27 A
itransistor idiode
Lm= 760 H 4 50
0 0
time time
DCM itransistor 109.98 A
Lm= 28 H
20
14.66 A 100
idiode
10
50
0 0
time time
or Correction
Very simple shaping (V) Comparing semiconductor currents
for both control methods (II)
CCM (Lm= 760 H, E42/17/12) DCM (Lm= 28 H, E30/15/13) )
itransistor 20
itransistor
4
2 10
0
time 0
time
itransistor RMS = 2.16 A itransistor RMS = 3.55 A
Losses in the transistor operating in DCM are
3.552 / 2.162 = 2.7 times as high as in CCM
Operation in CCM is desirable from

the point of view of efficiency
or Correction
Very simple shaping (VI) Comparing controllers for both
control methods
Multiplier control (MC) Voltage-Follower Control (VFC)
DC/DC DC/DC
converter converter
in DCM
Low-Pass
Low-Pass filter
filter
Controller cost: Controller cost:

UC3854A  5.3 € UC3843  0.5 €
UC3854B  8.2 € UC3525  1.1 €
Operation in DCM is desirable from the

point of view of the controller cost
or Correction
Very simple shaping (VII) Can we have some of advantages of
both methods together? Conduction-
Angle Control
DC/DC
converter
 In CCM (as MC)
 Low losses (as MC)
Very  Low cost (as VFC)

Low-Pass
cheap filter  Compliance with
circuit regulations
 Current sensor
11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact

 No perfect sinusoidal
233
or Correction
Very simple shaping (VIII)
Principle of operation of
Conduction Angle Control (I)
iB··R1
+ - iB··R1
R1
+
+ + iB
ve ve
vs + vs
- 
-
Active mode t
Saturation
Transistor in active mode: vs = ve - iB··R1
Transistor in saturation: vs = 0

or Correction
Very simple shaping (IX) Principle of operation of
Conduction Angle Control (II)
This signal can be used as reference

for the current feedback loop
iB··R1 iB1··R1
+ - ve iB2··R1
+ iB3··R1
+ + R1 iB vs1
ve vs +
vs2
- - 
vs3
t
iB1 < iB2 < iB3
(The same if it is controlled by light)
or Correction
Very simple shaping (X)
Implementation without galvanic isolation
DC/DC Output
converter in
Line CCM or DCM
Current
feedback
Standard loop
controller
Shaper
Low-pass
Filter
Voltage feedback loop

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XI) Example: Implementation based
on a boost converter
Output
R1
Line
R2
Standard
controller
Current
feedback-loop
Low-pass
filter
Q1
TL431
To perform the
Voltage
current reference
feedback-loop

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XII) Implementation without galvanic isolation
DC/DC
converter in Output
CCM or DCM
Line
Current
feedback loop
Standard Voltage
controller feedback loop
Low-pass
Filter
Optocoupler TL431

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XIII) Example: Implementation based
on a flyback converter
Output
R1
Line
R2
Standard
controller
Current
feedback-loop
Low-pass
Q1 filter
To perform the
current reference TL431
Voltage
feedback-loop

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XIV) Design procedure
@ Minimum line voltage and
Output
ig Power maximum output power:
R1
stage R1, R2 and the input-current
R2
feedback loop must be designed
to supply the total power to the
Current load.
feedback loop Q1 will be held in cut-off by the
output-voltage feedback loop.
Q1 Filter
@ 190V AC, PO max ig
Voltage
feedback loop
ig
@ 230V AC, PO max
@ Nominal line voltage and
maximum output power: D
D=22.5º
or Correction
Very simple shaping (XV) ig
Line waveforms at full load
D
Voltage 85 V AC 110 V AC 130 V AC

Design for the
Dead 0º 37.5º 55.7º
American range
angle

Design for the
Dead 0º 37.5º 98.8º
Universal range angle

Design for the
Dead 0º 29.2º 46.2º
European range* angle
* Also valid for Universal range if R2 is properly changed

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XVI)
Line waveforms for different loads
Decreasing loads
Classical control method Conduction Angle Control

ig (at full load)
ig ig (at full load)
ig
ig
ig
Remember: IEC 61000-3-2 should be complied only at full load!

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XVII)
Small-signal model of the Power Stage
(including the input-current feedback loop)
DC/DC
converter
Power
stage +
current
Low-Pass
loop filter
Output-voltage feedback loop
Objective: to have a model of the power stage (+ current loop)

to properly calculate the output-voltage feedback loop

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XVIII) Averaging process
Power stage + current loop
Input DC/DC iO Output
converter
vO
VgP·sint
VgP·2/
vOav
Control
igav iOav iO
VgP·2/ CB vOav
iOav
Power Power stage + current loop
or Correction
Very simple shaping (XIX) Choosing the control variable
igav iOav
CB vOav
VgP·2/
i
Control
Cact
iC
iCact = ·ib
 ib
we choose
iCact
iC iled
iCact = CTR·iled
CTR

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XX)
Steady-state and perturbed variables
igav iOav
CB vOav
VgP·2/
iCact
Steady-state Perturbation
iO
îOav
iOav
IOav iOav
t
or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXI)
Value of igav
igav iOav
CB vOav
VgP·2/
Input port Output port
iCact
From the theoretical study:
2  v gP  R eq C C C
igav  (sin   cos )
π  R S  R1 2 2 2
where: R1  R 2
R eq  RS = current sensor gain
R1  R 2
R i vgP = line voltage (peak value)
 C    D  2  a cos( 1 Cact )
v gP
or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXII) Small-signal circuit for the input port
Power Power stage
+ current loop
igav 2  v gP  R eq C C C
igav  (sin   cos )
VgP·2/ π  R S  R1 2 2 2
Input port
iCact After perturbing igav
Power Power stage îgav  GgC  îCact  Ggv  v̂ gP

îgav + current loop
where:
R eq   C
(Ggv) -1 GgC  
GgC·îCact   RS
2  R eq C
Ggv   sin
Input port   R1  R S 2
or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXIII)
Value of iOav
igav iOav
CB vOav
VgP·2/
iCact
From the theoretical study:
v2
gP  R eq
iOav  ( C  sin  C )
2π  v Oav  R S  R 1
where:
vOav = output voltage

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXIV) Small-signal circuit for the output port (I)
Power Power stage
+ current loop
v2
gP  R eq
iOav  ( C  sin  C )
iOav 2π  v Oav  R S  R 1
vOav
CB After perturbing iOav
Output port
iCact
îOav  GOC  îCact  GOg  v̂ gP  GOV  v̂ Oav
where:
VgP  R eq 1  cos  C IOav 1
GOC    GOV   
  VOav  R S C VOav RO
2
1  cos
2
2  IOav VgP  R eq
GOg    sin  C
VgP   VOav  R S  R 1

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXV) Small-signal circuit for the output port (II)
Power Power stage

+ current loop
iOav
vOav After perturbing iOav
CB
Output port
iCact
îOav +
GOg· ^v
GOC· ^ Oav
îCact -(GOv)-1 vgP CB
-

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXVI)
Small-signal circuit for both
input and output ports
îgav Power Power stage + current loop
îOav +
(Ggv)-1 -(GOv) -1
GOC· ^v
GOg· CB
Oav
GgC·îCact îCact ^ -
vgP
îCact
• The same structure as in the case of the previous
control methods
• First-order transfer functions
• Different value for the parameters
or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXVII)
Transfer function between line
voltage and output voltage
^iOav +
GOC·îCact
^v
GOg·v^gP
Oav
RO CB
-
R O  rload
GOg 
v̂ Oav R O  rload
G vOvg (s)  
v̂ gP R O  rload
1  s  CB 
R O  rload where:
RO=VO/IO
rload= dynamic load
First-order transfer function

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXVIII)
Transfer function between
control and output voltage
^iOav +
GOC·îCact
^v
Oav
RO GOg·v^gP CB
-
R O  rload
GOC 
G vOiC (s)  
îCact R O  rload
1  s  CB 
R O  rload
Also, first-order transfer function

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXIX)
Variation of transfer function between control
and output voltage with the line voltage (I)
R O  rload
GOC 
G vOiC (s)  
îCact R O  rload
1  s  CB 
R O  rload
being: GOC
10
VgP  R eq 1  cos  C
GOC   
  VOav  R S C
1  cos 2
2 5
where:
R 1  ICact
 C  2  a cos( ) 0
VgP
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
VgP/VgPmin
Slight variation of GOC when VgP changes

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXX)
Variation of transfer function between control
and output voltage with the line voltage (II)
Comparing these results with the ones

obtained using control based on a multiplier
GOC
10
Control based
on a multiplier
5
Conduction
Angle Control
GOC undergoes a lower
0 variation in the case of the
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Conduction Angle Control.
VgP/VgPmin
This fact simplifies the
design of the output-voltage
feedback loop.

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXXI) Prototype for experimental results
(based on a Flyback converter)
Output
Line R1
PO: 80 W
Vg: 190- R2 VO: 12 V
265 V AC
Standard
controller
UC 3825
Low-pass
filter
MCT2
TL431

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXXII) Implementation of the input-current feedback
loop based on a standard controller for
Switching Mode Power Supplies
1 : 50 10 K 12 nF
820 pF
220
Current sensor 3.7 M
From the 47 K + 5.1 V To the UC 3825’s

line-rectifier output R1 comparator
47 K
UC 3825’s
R2 33 nF error amplifier
MCT2 820 pF
Bias
+ 5.1 V R1 = 1M
1K
R2 = 10 K

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXXIII)
+
vsensor
-
vsensor
R1
vR2 +
1 V/div R2 vR2
@ 190 V AC, full load -
vsensor
vsensor
D increases
D vR2 D when VgP
increases
vR2
1 V/div 1 V/div
@ 230 V AC, full load @ 265 V AC, full load
or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXXIV) Experimental results (II)
+
vsensor
vsensor
-
D vR2 R1
+
1 V/div R2 vR2
@ 230 V AC, full load -
vsensor vsensor
D increases
D D when IO
decreases
vR2 0.2 V/div vR2
0.5 V/div
@ 230 V AC, 12 V, 2 A @ 230 V AC, 12 V, 0.85 A

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXXV) Experimental results (III)
Line current
@ 190 V AC, @ 230 V AC, @ 265 VAC,

full load full load full load
0.33 A/div 0.33 A/div 0.33 A/div
@ 190 V AC, @ 230 V AC, @ 265 V AC,

12 V, 2 A 12 V, 2 A 12 V, 2 A
0.167 A/div 0.167 A/div 0.167 A/div

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXXVI) Experimental results (IV)
Harmonic content Line current (A)
0.4
@ 230 V AC,
full load Class D limits
0.2
Measured
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
nth harmonics
0.33 A/div
Line current (A)
@ 230 V AC, 102.8 W

Class A limits
THD = 24.5% 1
PF = 0.968 Measured
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
nth harmonics
or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXXVII) Experimental results (V)
Verifying the small-signal model (I)
îCact
Simulated
[Volts]
iled 1.5
iCact 1
vO(t)-VOav
(Pspice simulation)
CTR
0.5
iCact = CTR·iled ^
vOav(t)
0 (small-signal model)
-0.5
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 t [s]
or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXXVIII) Experimental results (VI)
Verifying the small-signal model (II)
^
vgP
Simulated
^
vgP [Volts]
0.5
^
vOav(t)
(small-signal model)
0
-0.5
vO(t)-VOav
(Pspice simulation)
-1
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 t [s]
or Correction
Very simple shaping (XXXIX) Experimental results (VII)
Verifying the small-signal
model (III)
îCact
Experimental
Measured
Output voltage Average small-
iled signal model
iC
CTR
iCact = CTR·iled

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XL) Experimental results (VIII)
Verifying the small-signal
model (IV) ^
vgP
Experimental
^
vgP
Measured Output
voltage Average small-
signal model

or Correction
Very simple shaping (XLI) Conclusions of the use of very simple
current shaping techniques for very
low-cost applications (I)
 The Conduction Angle Control method can be

used in CCM (as the control based on a
multiplier)
 Low losses (as the control based on a

multiplier)
 Low cost controller (as Voltage Follower

Control)
 Current sensor and current feedback loop

No perfect sinusoidal, but compliance with IEC
61000-3-2 isAdvanced
11/11/2003 achievedTechniques in Power Fact 267
or Correction
Very simple shaping (XLII) Conclusions of the use of very simple
current shaping techniques for very
low-cost applications (II)
 An average small-signal model of the PFC controlled by

Conduction Angle has been obtained
 The transfer functions between control and output voltage

and between input voltage and output voltage have also been
obtained. As in the case of other control methods, they are first-
order transfer functions
 However, the transfer function between control and output

voltage is almost constant when the value of the AC input
voltage varies. This fact simplifies the output-voltage feedback
loop

or Correction

Advanced Techniques in Power Factor Correction (PFC) : Grupo de Electrónica Industrial Universidad de Oviedo (Spain)

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Advanced Techniques in Power Factor Correction (PFC) : Grupo de Electrónica Industrial Universidad de Oviedo (Spain)

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Advanced Techniques in Power Factor

Grupo de Electrónica Industrial

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 1

• Exploring the use of isolated Resistor Emulators as the only

• Exploring the use of isolated Resistor Emulators as the only

 Cheap & reliable  Input current witha

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 5

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

(Input current, rms)2 - (Its 1ST harmonic, rms)2

Each individual harmonic

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 7

Modifying the electronic load Power Factor Correctors

Power Factor Corrector

However: the value of the Power Factor is not

We should use words such as “Low-Frequency

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 10

High power Reactive Recovery to line

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 11

What is the right choice in PFC?

The European Regulation

Limits in Class A are less strict for low-power applications

Limits in Class A and in Class D become more

Example #1: a 100 W (low-power) battery

Example #1: a 100 W (low-power) TV set (Class D)

It does not comply with

PF = 0.748 and A slightly more complex system

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 18

Example #2: two 500 W (low-power) pieces of

The advantages of being Class A vanish at 500 W

The complexity of the systems for low-frequency

Influence of the input voltage range (I)

 European range: 190 Vac – 265 Vac

 American range: 85 Vac – 130 Vac

 Universal range: 85 Vac – 265 Vac

 Two ranges (American and European), but a

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 21

Single range (either European or American) and simple system for

Moderate change in the input voltage of the DC/DC converter 

Slight penalty in efficiency

Simple PFC with Power supply

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 22

Universal range and simple PFC 

Large change in the input voltage of the DC/DC converter 

Significant penalty in efficiency 

Complex PFCs which guaranty constant input voltage are interesting

Complex PFC with Power supply

Power supply for single DC/DC Electronic

Power supply for double

110V converter circuitry

Is it compatible with the

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 26

Energy stored at the output

Power supply Power supply

It is not a good solution for low-voltage

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 27

Current Voltage Power

Power supply Power supply

Energy stored here

Power supply Power supply

Energy stored here

11/11/2003 Advanced Techniques in Power Fact 29

Two separate Simple or