Heat Exchangers

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 Heat Exchangers

Contents
1. Heat Transfer
2. Types of Heat Exchangers
3. Shell and Tube Exchangers
4. Double pipe Exchangers
5. Air – Cooled Exchangers
6. Heat Exchanger Operation
7. Heat Exchanger Problems

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 Heat Exchangers

1. Heat Transfer

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The transfer of heat is necessary for control of:

 A fluid temperature and/or its composition

and phase;

 The rate of mass transfer between phases;

 The rate of chemical reactions, and

 Suitable temperatures to prevent failure or

reduced service life of the equipment.

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 Heat Exchangers

Heat transfer equipment can be divided into the

following basic types:

Heaters: Direct and Indirect

Fluid-Fluid H.E: Pipe-in-Pipe, Shell-and-Tube,

Plate, Coil, and Special Types
for Specific Services.

Coolers Utilizing Air: Straight Aerial, Cooling

Towers, Combination Air-Water

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Heat Transfer Mechanisms

By definition, heat is that energy transferred

solely as a result of a temperature difference
that is independent of mass transfer.

There are three mechanisms of heat transfer:

Conduction, Convection and Radiation

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 Heat Exchangers

Conduction
Conduction of heat occurs by the excitation of
adjacent molecules where said molecules have
little or no movement.

Conduction thus is the primary mechanism in

solids and may be an important component
mechanism with some liquids at low flow rates.

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 Heat Exchangers

Convection
Convection is that mechanism where heat
energy is transferred by the physical movement
of molecules from place to place.

Convection is the most important mechanism.

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The usual heat transfer process is governed by

a group of resistances in series:
 Two fluid films
(governed by convection).

 The solid (material) separating the fluid

(governed by conduction).

 Some other corrosion

(governed by conduction).

 Scale or deposition films

(governed by conduction(.
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 Heat Exchangers
Radiation
Radiation is the process whereby a body emits
heat waves that may be:
Absorbed,
Reflected or
Transmitted through a colder body.

The sun heats the earth by means of

electromagnetic waves.

A hot body emits a whole spectrum of wave

lengths.

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Radiation which affects the eye as light

extends roughly from 0.00004 to 0.00008 cm in
wave length.

As temperature increases the predominant

wave lengths become shorter.

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Factors Affecting Heat Transfer:

Temperature difference,

Thermal conductivity of solid material,

Area,

Velocity of the fluids, and

Direction of flow.

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Temperature difference
The greater the temperature difference between
two materials the greater the driving force
causing heat transfer.

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Thermal conductivity
Every substance has a definite thermal
conductivity which affects the amount of heat
transferred.

Metals are good conductors while wood and

carbon are very poor conductors.

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Area
The cross-sectional area affects the heat
transfer.

The larger the area, the more heat can be

transferred.

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 Heat Exchangers

Velocity of the fluids in the tube

An increase in the velocity of the fluids
increases the heat transfer rate.

The velocity also affects the fouling:

With higher velocities reducing the possibility
of scale or dirt deposits on the tubes.

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Direction of flow of the liquids

It is seen from the diagrams that when using
identical equipment with equal rates of flow,
the one with counter-current flow and the other
with parallel flow, the final temperature will be
higher with counter current flow.

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 Heat Exchangers

Basic Conduction/Convection Equations

Heat transfer process can be calculated by the
equation:

Q = Q1 = Qw = Q 2

h1 A1 ∆t1 = (k/L) Aw ∆tw = h2 A2 ∆t2

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 Heat Exchangers

The values of "h" are proportionality constants

used to characterize the liquid film resistance
determined from experimental data or general
correlations.

The value "k" is the thermal conductivity of the

solid separating the two fluids, a measurable
property of that solid.

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 Heat Exchangers

It is convenient to show total heat transfer per

unit time in terms of an overall heat transfer
coefficient:

Q = U1 A1 ∆tm = U2 A2 ∆tm

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 Heat Exchangers

The overall coefficient "U" is related to the film

coefficients and thermal conductivity by the
equations:

U1 = 1
1 A1L A1
   Ff
h1 KAw h 2 A 2
1
U2 =
A2 A 2L 1
   Ff
h1A1 KAw h 2
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 Heat Exchangers

Where:
h1 = film coefficient for fluid 1
h2 = film coefficient for fluid 2
k = thermal conductivity of solid wall
A1 = surface area of pipe for film h1
A2 = surface area of pipe
for film h2 Aw = average
wall area of pipe or tubing
L = wall thickness of pipe or tubing
Ff = fouling factor

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 Heat Exchangers

The fouling factor (Ff) accounts for:

 Scale,
 Rust, and the like
Which form on the surface with use and in
effect provide an additional resistance to heat
flow.

The fouling factor will vary widely with

conditions.

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 Heat Exchangers

Values of the overall coefficient "U" may be

predicted from Equations 3 or 4 or from actual
performance.

"U" will vary with area so that:

U1 A1 = U2A2

In shell-and-tube exchangers the heat transfer

area "A" is almost always based on outside
tube wall area.

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 Heat Exchangers

Effective ∆T
This is the mean ∆t because the ∆t across the wall
surface varies with location as shown:

(A) Two fluids flowing counter current, no phase change

(B) Two fluids flowing concurrent, no phase change
(C) One fluid flowing and one boiling (or condensing)
(D) Superheated vapour being
cooled to saturation (a)
condensing (b)
sub cooled as liquid (c)

The other fluid is boiling or

condensing.

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 Heat Exchangers

∆t’s can be measured:

 The larger we will call ∆t1.

 The smaller ∆t2 (called the approach).

It designates how close the temperatures of the

two fluids approach each other in the
exchanger.

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 Heat Exchangers
The basic equation for estimating ∆tm is:

∆tm = (F) t 1  t 2
Ln ( t 1 / t 2 )
Where:
∆tm = log mean temperature difference (LMTD)
F = factor for heat exchanger depends on
the geometry of the fluid flow in the
exchanger
∆t1 = largest ∆t (at one end of the heat
exchanger)
∆t2 = smallest ∆t (at one end of the heat
exchanger)
Ln = logarithm to the base “e”
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Heat Exchangers

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MTD Correction “” F
The following Figures provide a means to
estimate the "F" factor shown on the left
ordinate.

Values of P and R on these figures are found

by the equations:

t 2  t1 T1  T2
=P =R
T1  t1 t2  t1
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 Heat Exchangers

T1 and T2 represent the temperatures of the

shell-side fluid, and

t1 and t2 the temperatures of the tube-side fluid.

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Approach
The approach ∆t2 is an economic choice.

Its specification governs heat exchanger cost.

As ∆t2 gets smaller, LMTD becomes smaller and

area required becomes larger.
(Q = U A ∆tm)

As LMTD approaches zero, area approaches

infinity.

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 Heat Exchangers

Since the cost of the heat exchanger is a direct

function of area, specification of approach has
a direct effect on cost.

In order to have the optimum cost installation,

a series of exchangers in series may be used.

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 Heat Exchangers
The approach used often will be in the
following range:
 Aerial coolers, 10 – 25°C (18 – 45°F)

 Water cooling of hydrocarbon liquids and

gases, 8 –12°C (14 – 22°F)

 Liquid-liquid heat exchange, 11 – 25°C (20

– 45°F)

 Refrigeration chillers on gas-liquid

streams, 4 – 6°C (7 – 11°F)
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 Heat Exchangers

Vaporizing (Boiling) Liquids

There is a special concern when one of the heat
exchanger fluids is vaporizing.

This occurs in:

 Refrigeration chillers and

 Fractionation reboilers.
The solid curve is what really
occurs with boiling liquids.

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 Heat Exchangers

At some value of ∆t the curve changes direction

and Q/A decreases rapidly to a minimum, after
which it begins to rise again. Why?

A layer of gas bubbles can

build up around a tube if
vaporization occurs at the
tube wall faster than the
vapour can disengage and
rise through the liquid.

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 Heat Exchangers

This layer of bubbles forms an extra resistance

in series and is a type of fouling factor.

When ∆t across the tube

reaches a critical point,
the bubble layer forms
and Q/A decreases.

If ∆t continues to increase,
the layer resistance stabilizes
and Q/A begins to increase again.

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 Heat Exchangers

The critical ∆t depends on:

 The liquid, and

 The character of the tube surface.

The critical ∆t may occur as low as 20 – 35°C.

Special tube surfaces are marketed which are

designed to minimize bubble layer formation.

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 Heat Exchangers

There are two basic mechanical factors which

affect vapour disengagement:

Spacing and arrangement of the

exchanger tube.

The area available between the liquid and

vapour phases.

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 Heat Exchangers

Tube configurations
Two tube configurations among the many
available known as triangular layout.

To improve vapour disengagement between

tubes, the tube pitch is typically 1.5 to 2 times
the tube diameter.

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 Heat Exchangers

Another alternative is the

square layout

Although not as common

as triangular layout,
square layout has been
used in corrosive service
such as amine regeneration.

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 Heat Exchangers

Flow Path
Fluids flowing through a heat exchanger can
take one or a combination of these paths:
 Parallel flow,
 Counter flow, or
 Cross‑flow.

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Parallel Flow
In parallel flow, fluid flowing inside the tubes
flows in the same direction as the fluid flowing
outside the tubes.

This flow pattern yields the least amount of heat

transfer because it does not maintain a high
temperature difference between the fluids.

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 Heat Exchangers
Counter Flow
In counter flow, sometimes called reverse flow,
fluid inside the tubes flows in one direction
while the fluid outside the tubes flows in the
other direction.

This flow pattern yields the most heat transfer

because temperature difference remains
relatively high all the way through the heat
exchanger.

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 Heat Exchangers
Cross-Flow
In cross-flow, fluid outside the tubes flows at right
angles to fluid inside the tubes.

This flow pattern creates more turbulence in the fluid

outside the tubes which increase the amount of heat
transfer.

Cross-flow is commonly used in conjunction, with

parallel flow and/or counter flow fluid paths.

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 Heat Exchangers

TYPES OF HEAT .2
EXCHANGERS

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The kinds of exchangers commonly found in

oil or gas processing are now described and
references given for further study:

Type of service, and

Various equipment types and their
application.

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 Heat Exchangers
Type of Service
The functions of heat exchangers are
manifold. The following are typical of oil and
gas processing:

Heating
Gas-to-Gas Exchange
Chilling
Reboiling
Inter- and After-Cooling
Desuperheating and Condensing
Condensing
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 Heat Exchangers

Heating
At the wellhead natural gas is often passed
through a choke to regulate the flow.

In some instances advantage can be taken of

this to deliberately lower the gas temperature,
as in the LTS process.

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 Heat Exchangers

In other cases, the gas from the choke is

delivered directly into gathering lines.

In this case, the gas must be kept above the

hydrate temperature at all times.

The temperature-lowering effect of the choke or

Joule-Thomson expansion valve may have to
be offset by heating the gas upstream of the
choke.

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 Heat Exchangers

Another instance is long gathering lines.

The gas may be passed through heaters at

various points along the line to maintain the
temperature above the hydrate point.

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 Heat Exchangers

Gas-to-Gas Exchange
This important service is often found in NGL
recovery.

Here the goal is to allow the cold residue gas

to approach as closely as possible the
temperature of the inlet gas, thus either
maximizing the savings in refrigeration or
allowing a lower processing temperature.

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 Heat Exchangers

Chilling
Recovery of NGL from natural gas can be
increased by cooling the gas in an exchanger
with a refrigerant scream, such as liquid
propane.

The cold propane removes heat from the gas,

vaporizing in the process.

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 Heat Exchangers

Reboiling
This service is very similar to chilling, except
that the vaporizing fluid is now the process
stream and the energy source is the heating
medium, which can be:

Hot gas,
Hot water,
Steam,
Hot oil, or
Hot combustion gases.

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Reboiling is required in such services as:

Condensate stabilizers,
Fractionators,
Amine and glycol solution regenerators,
and
Refrigerant side of a chillier.

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 Heat Exchangers

Inter- and After-Cooling

When gas is compressed it is heated and
must be cooled prior to further compression
to avoid excessive temperatures or to reduce
horsepower.

Hot gas must be cooled also before injection

into a pipeline to avoid higher pressure drop
and thus higher compression cost.

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 Heat Exchangers

Cooling is accomplished by three media:

 Cooling air,
 Cooling-tower water, or
 Tempered cooling water.

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Air cooling is accomplished by fintubed heat

exchangers.

Cooling towers cool recirculated water by

evaporating a portion of it.

Tempered cooling water is usually an

ethylene glycol solution in water. This, in turn
is cooled using seawater.

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Desuperheating and Condensing

After a refrigerant is vaporized in the chillier, it is
compressed to a pressure and temperature at
which it can be condensed by rejecting heat to
the surroundings.

This condensation occurs in a cooling-water or

air-cooled exchanger.

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Condensing
Conventional distillation columns require
overhead product condensation to provide the
necessary reflux and to supply the distillate
product in convenient liquid form.

A coolant (air, water or refrigerant) is used for

this purpose.

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Exchanger Materials
Like most process equipment, heat
exchangers are fabricated from carbon steel
where possible.

Carbon steel becomes brittle at approximately

– 20 °F (– 29 °C).

Chirpy-impact-tested carbon steel can be used

to – 40 °F (– 40 °C).

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 Heat Exchangers

Ni steel (3.5%) is used Between – 40 to –150 ºF

(– 40 to –101 ºC).

Stainless steel (300 series) is used below –150

°F (–101 ºC) and may be more readily available
or more economical than low Ni steel.

In plate-fin heat exchangers one exception is

aluminium, which can be used at any cryogenic
processing temperature.

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 Heat Exchangers

Gas containing hydrogen sulphide and carbon

dioxide can cause severe corrosion
(Stainless steel is often required for this
service).

Carbon steel and a type of brass called

Admiralty metal are sometimes used for
cooling water.

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SHELL AND TUBE .3

EXCHANGERS

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 Heat Exchangers

The name describes the geometry a bundle of

tubes mounted within a cylindrical shell.

The "tube-side" fluid flows inside the tubes and

the "shell-side" fluid passes inside the shell
but outside the tubes.

The two fluids exchange heat through the tube

walls.

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Shell-and-tube exchangers are named by the

Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association
(TEMA )

Letters are given to indicate the style of:

 Had (or front) end,

 Shell, and
 Rear end.

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Head
The bonnet (integral cover): Type B is often
used for:

Hazardous (H2 or HF) in refineries,

High pressure service in gas plants, and
Clean fluids.

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 Heat Exchangers

Removable covers: Type A or N are used when

cleaning is required.

Bonnets are cheaper than removable covers

and reduce leaks by eliminating one gasket.

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Shell
The one-pass shell (type E) is the most
common.

A close temperature approach or pinch or a

temperature cross can require two or more
shells in series to achieve an acceptably high
LMTD (or F factor).

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 Heat Exchangers

A two-pass shell (type F) has a much higher

LMTD (or F factor), but has a much higher
pressure drop.

Fluid leakage past a longitudinal baffle (unless

welded to the shell) can reduce heat transfer
dramatically.

Less than 0.01 in. clearance between the baffle

and the shell can reduce heat transfer by 30%
or more.

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 Heat Exchangers

Divided flow shells (type J) reduce shell-side

pressure drop to about one-eighth of a
comparable E shell.

Kettle (type K) shells are used for reboiling or

vaporizing, as in a chiller.

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Rear
There are three types:

Fixed-tube-sheet exchanger,
Floating-head exchanger, and
U-tube.

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Fixed-tube-sheet exchanger
Fixed-tube sheets are relatively hard to remove
or replace; therefore, they are used for clean
streams and low temperature differences.

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Floating-head exchanger
Floating-head exchangers are used in a variety
of services.

Manufacture is more expensive than for the

fixed-tube sheet, but the channel head permits
easier access for maintenance.

Also, the floating head allows large temperature

difference between ambient and operating
conditions without excessive thermal stress on
the equipment.

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U-tube
Like the floating-head, the U-tube is a
removable bundle and has similar advantages.

However, cleaning inside the tubes is

extremely difficult.

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Exchanger size is indicated by two numbers,

the inside diameter (ID) of the shell and the
tube length, both in inches.

For example, 29 in. ID shell with 16 ft long

tubes is referred to as size 29-192.

A kettle with 23in. ID front end flange, 37in. ID

kettle shell, and 16-ft long tubes is 23/37-192. .

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Tube Arrangement
Heat exchangers are built so fluids will have:

One pass (Single),

Two passes, or
Multiple passes.
through the exchanger, depending on the
arrangement of the tubes.

They may also have a combination of flow

paths.

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 Heat Exchangers

Single pass heat exchanger

In straight tube heat exchangers, fluid enters
one end of the tubes, flows straight through
and exits the other end

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Double pass heat exchanger

In U‑tube heat exchangers, fluid enters one end
of the tubes and flows to the other end.
However, instead of exiting, the tubes bend
back in the shape of a U.

Fluid flows around the

bend and back to the
first end, then exits the
heat exchanger.

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Multiple passes
Heat exchangers can also be designed for
multiple passes. Tubes are built to change the
direction of flow through the heat exchanger
several times before
the fluid exits.

The more passes

between the fluids,
the more heat can
be transferred.

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 Heat Exchangers

Fluid Placement
This obviously affects the value of "F" in the
LMTD calculation.

But, the major consideration may be the

character of the fluid itself.

The following general guidelines are useful.

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 Heat Exchangers

Shell-Side
1. Viscous fluid to increase (generally) the
value of "U“.

2. Fluid having the lowest flow rate.

3. Condensing or boiling fluid.

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Tube-Side Heat Exchangers
1. Toxic and lethal fluids to minimize
leakage.

2. Corrosive fluids.

3. Fouling fluids; increased velocity

minimizes fouling but enhances erosion.

4. High temperature fluids requiring alloy

materials.

5. High pressure fluids to minimize cost.

6. Fluid on which pressure drop is most 95

 Heat Exchangers

DOUBLE-PIPE .4
EXCHANGERS

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 Heat Exchangers

In a double-pipe or hairpin exchanger.

One fluid passes through the inside of the
inner pipe and the second fluid flows through
the annulus between the outside of the inner
pipe and the inside of the outer pipe.

The flow is:

Counter-currently,
so that the "F"
factor is 1.0 for this
type of exchanger.

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Double-pipe exchangers:

Have limited area, and

Used for services with small heat duties
(UA < 100,000 Btu/hr °F).

If one of the fluids shows a very low heat

transfer coefficient, that fluid:

Can be placed in the annulus and

Longitudinal fins used on the outside of
the inside pipe.

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The extended surface of the fins provides

better heat transfer for the fluid with higher
resistance.

These exchangers are used primarily for

heating and cooling of gas streams.

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INDIRECT .5
HEATERS

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The indirect heater is similar to a shell and tube

exchanger, being composed of a large
cylindrical shell with a tube bank mounted in
the upper portion for heating the process fluid.

A U-shaped fire tube is located in the bottom,

and the shell is filled with a heat transfer
medium that transmits heat from the fire tube
to the tube bank.

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Heat is provided by burning gas or oil in the

burner.

The combustion gas passes through the first

section of the fire tube, giving up mainly
radiant heat with a lesser amount of
convective heat.

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The hot gases then turn and pass through the

return section, in which the heat transfer is
mainly by convection.

The gases then flow up the stack to the

atmosphere.

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Water has an unequalled ability to transfer

heat and so is almost always used as the heat
transfer fluid for applications between 35 and
190 ºF (1.7 and 88 ºC).

Adding ethylene glycol extends the range

from 50 to 250 ºF (10 to 121 ºC).

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Special heating oils are used for higher

temperature service, say up to 650 ºF (343 ºC);
these oils have:
 A low vapour pressure and
 High specific heat.

Molten salt is used for high-temperature

applications from 500 to 900°F (260 to 482 ºC).

Molten salt will not decompose, as will oils,

and has good heat transfer properties.

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The conventional glycol regenerator is

essentially an indirect heater converted to
direct-heat service by placing the glycol
outside the fire tubes.

In gas processing, indirect heaters are used

primarily for heating gas streams, including
regeneration gas in small solid-desiccant
dehydration units.

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AIR-COOLED .6
EXCHANGERS

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 Heat Exchangers
Air-cooled exchangers have the process fluid inside
the tubes and ambient air on the outside, either moving
by natural convection or blown by a fan.

Because of the low heat-transfer coefficient for

atmospheric air, fins are used on the outside of the
pipes.

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Both induced and forced draft fans are used.

The latter are specified in most applications.

When recirculation of cooling air is a problem,

induced draft fans are used to provide positive
outflow of the air.

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Special precautions are needed for cold

climates:

Wind skirts,
Housing may be necessary, and
Air recirculation.

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The flow pattern in air-cooled exchangers is

cross flow, with either an odd or even number
of tube passes.

LMTD correction factors:

The upper curves are for an even or odd
number of side-by-side passes of the process
fluid.

The lower curves apply to two-pass, over-and-

under flow.

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Advantages of Induce Draft Design
1. Easier to shop assemble, ship, and
install.

2. The hoods offer protection from weather.

3. Easier to clean underside when covered

with lint, bugs, debris.

4. More efficient air distribution over the

bundle.

5. Less likely to be affected by hot air

recirculation.. 115
 Heat Exchangers

Disadvantages of Induced Draft Design

1. More difficult to remove bundles for

maintenance.

2. High temperature service limited due to

effect of hot air on the fans.

3. More difficult to work on fan assembly,

i.e. adjust blades due to heat from
bundle, and their location.

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Advantages of Forced Draft Design

1. Easy to remove and replace bundles,
2. Easier to mount motors or other drivers
with short shafts,
3. Lubrication, maintenance, etc. more
accessible,
4. With reinforced straight side panels to form
a rectangular box type plenum, shipping
and mounting is greatly simplified,
permitting complete preassembled shop-
tested units, and
5. Best adapted for cold climate operation with
warm air recirculation.
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Disadvantages of the force draft design

Are the list of "advantages of the induced draft
design."

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Heat Transfer Calculations

The basic calculation approach is the same as
other exchangers.

Table shows a group of overall heat transfer

coefficients based on bare tube area.

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The optimum air temperature rise across the

tubes may be estimated by the equation:

(t2 – t1) = (o.005) (U)  T2  T1 

  t1 
 2 
Where: t2 = outlet air temperature ºC ( ºF)
t1 = inlet air temperature ºC ( ºF)
T2 = outlet temperature of process
fluid ºC ( ºF)
T1 = inlet temperature of process
fluid ºC ( ºF)
U = value from Table BTU/hr2. ºF
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 Heat Exchangers

The optimum air temperature rise is also a

function of the range (T1 – T2) of the process
fluid.

The value of (t2 – t1) calculated should be

corrected using the equation:

CF = 0.89 + A (T1 – T2)

Where CF = correction factor, dimensionless

A = constant 0.0025 (0.0014)

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Tube size can vary from 15.9 – 38.1 mm (5/8 –

1 ½ in.), but the standard size is 25.4 mm (1 in.).

Tube layout is triangular.

Tube pitch is the

minimum which avoids
fin contact or overlap.

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 Heat Exchangers

The types of fins vary with the service.

They are either tension wrapped, solder

bonded or extruded (the latter are the most
expensive).

Fin height varies from ½ – 5/8 in., and normally

there are 8 – 11 fins per inch.

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The air-side film coefficient for a typical fin tube
(based on extended area) can be estimated from
the equation
0.6
A (v g )
ha = 0.3
d
Where: ha = air-side film coefficient
(BTU/hr2-ft-ºF)
Vg = air velocity by tubes (ft/sec)
d = outside diameter of bare tubes
(inch)
A = constant (1.67)
125
 Heat Exchangers
The fan power requirements can be estimated
from the equation:

(Pa )(Qa )
KW =
( A)( Efficiency)
Where: Qa = air flow rate (ft3/sec)
Pa = air pressure drop in cooler
(in.H2O)
A = constant (142)
Efficiency varies from 0.4 – 0.75; 0.7 is a useful
planning number.
126
 Heat Exchangers

Pressure drop varies with:

Air rate,
Tube diameter,
Pitch, and
Number of tube rows.
For planning purposes a pressure drop of 25 Pa
(0.1 in H2O) per tube row can be used.

For most gas processing applications the

number of tube rows varies from 3 – 6.

127
 Heat Exchangers
Fan Control
The primary criteria are temperature control of
the process fluid and power consumption.

Drive Variable Speed Fans

It is feasible to drive variable speed fans with:

Standard induction motors using some

type of A.C Adjustable Frequency Drives
(AFD),
A variable voltage inverter,
A pulse width modulator, or
current source types.
128
 Heat Exchangers
Variable Pitch Fan offers;

Precise temperature control,

Provides energy savings, and
Convenient for cold weather operations.

But It tends to:

Cost more, and
May involve more routine maintenance.

The choice between variable speed and variable

pitch depends on local circumstances and the
biases of the purchaser.
129
 Heat Exchangers
The other control alternatives are:

 Fluid By-pass,
 On-off fan control,
 Louvers or
 Shutters

By-pass and louvers may be effective in some

cases but they are energy inefficient

On-off fan control is simple and may be used if

there are a lot of fans in the same service

130
 Heat Exchangers

Winter protection is required in cold climates

In this case, the use of louvers plus some form

of variable air rate control is desirable

This is one case where a variable pitch fan plus

louvers may be the best system to control
internal air circulation

131
 Heat Exchangers

Outlet temperature is controlled primarily, by

air rate:

 Louvers,
 Variable pitch fan blades, and
 Variable speed motors

are all used to control temperature

Louvers may be manually adjustable for

seasonal or night-day air temperature changes,
or controlled automatically

132
 Heat Exchangers

Combination Coolers
Combination cooler that may offer advantage
where water is expensive to treat or is in short
supply.

It is an aerial cooler preceded by an evaporative

section.

The entering air is cooled with water as

necessary.

133
Heat Exchangers

134
 Heat Exchangers

When the air temperature is low enough the

water may be shut off.

Water rate may be decreased at intermediate

temperatures.

This unit has a higher capital cost but may

offer a total cost saving in some applications.

When equipped with controls to vary fan

horsepower output this unit offers flexibility at
minimum operating cost.

135
 Heat Exchangers

Some have accomplished a similar result by

using an air cooler for water.

This cooling is supplemented as needed with a

cooling tower.

The combination unit is usually preferred.

136
 Heat Exchangers

Choice of Heat Exchangers

An intelligent choice involves choosing

equipment that optimizes cost of the total
system without compromising operating
reliability.

137
 Heat Exchangers

HEAT .7
EXCHANGER
OPERATION

138
 Heat Exchangers
Procedure to Take a Heat Exchanger out
of Service

1. The hot fluid must be shut off before

the cold fluid.

2. After the hot fluid has been shut off,

both on inlet and outlet of the
exchangers and the temperature has
cooled to that of the cold fluid, then the
cold fluid can be shut off on both inlet
and outlet valves.
139
 Heat Exchangers

3. Both shell and tube side should now be

pumped out to slop or drained down..

4. Both inlet and outlet lines should be blanked

off for safety.

5. If the exchanger is in sour oil service or any

iron sulphide scale is expected, the
exchanger should be water washed before
opening to the atmosphere.

140
 Heat Exchangers

Procedure to Place Heat exchanger in

Service

1. Cheek the exchanger carefully to ensure

that all plugs have been replaced and that
all pipe work is ready for the exchanger to
be placed in service (no loose bolts,
gaskets in flanges).

2. All valves should be in the shut position.

3. Purging and testing.

141
 Heat Exchangers

4. Line up the system.

5. Open hot and cold fluid vent valves.

6. Crack open cold fluid inlet valve and vent all

air when liquid full. Close cold fluid vent
valve.

7. Crack open hot fluid outlet valve and vent all

the air, then close hot fluid vent valve. At this
stage, the exchanger is liquid full of both hot
and cold flowing fluids, open cold fluid inlet
and hot fluid outlet valves fully.
142
 Heat Exchangers
8. The cold fluid valve outlet may be opened
slowly until the cold fluid is passing
through the exchanger.

9. Start opening the hot fluid inlet valve

slowly.

10.Both valves, the cold fluid outlet valve and

the hot fluid inlet, should be opened slowly
until fully open

All operations should be performed slowly

and care must be taken not to cause sudden
temperature changes 143
 Heat Exchangers

Testing Heat Exchangers for Leaks

In some cases, before the equipment has been

operated, it is hydrostatically tested to check
for leaks, although all tubular equipment is
normally tested at its place of manufacture.

Sometimes, during operation, the products

become contaminated and this could be due to
a leaking heat exchanger tube.

The basic method for testing is as follows:

144
 Heat Exchangers

Fixed tube sheet exchanger

After the end covers have been removed.

A hydrostatic test pressure is applied to the

shell and leaking tubes will be detected by
water running out of the tube.

The tube is sealed by driving in a tapered plug

of suitable metal at each end of the tube and
the test repeated until all the leaks have been
cured.

145
 Heat Exchangers

Floating head exchanger

After the end covers are removed.

A special test ring sized to fit the exchanger is

fitted so as to seal the tubes and shell.

The procedure then becomes the same as for a

fixed tube sheet exchanger.

146
 Heat Exchangers
Notes:
1. Always use a cold liquid for testing, because
a hot liquid affects the expansion of tube
and shell and can cause damage.

2. Hydrostatic test pressures at ambient

temperature normally are 1.5 times the
design pressure corrected for temperature,
except for cast iron parts where other codes
govern.

3. When testing, the maximum specified DP

between tube and shell sides should not be
exceeded. 147
 Heat Exchangers

HEAT .8
EXCHANGERS
PROBLEMS

148
 Heat Exchangers

Heat Exchanger Fouling and Corrosion

Fouling of heat transfer surfaces-introduces

perhaps the major uncertainty into the design
and operation of heat exchange equipment.

Fouling in equipment involving boiling and

evaporation is often more severe than in single
phase heat exchangers and moreover, in
aqueous systems, is frequently associated
with corrosion.

149
 Heat Exchangers

When rust, scale, or other solid deposits build

up on the walls of pipes and tubes, they form a
layer of insulation on the surface of the wall.

This layer of insulation impedes the

overall ability of the wall to transfer
heat, and thus reduces the rate of
heat transfer.

150
 Heat Exchangers

Types of Fouling
Six classes or types of fouling depending upon
the immediate cause of the fouling are:

Scaling,
Particulate Fouling,
Chemical Reaction Fouling,
Corrosion Fouling,
Biofouling, and
Freezing Fouling.

151
 Heat Exchangers

Scaling
Involve the crystallization of inverse solubility
salts (such as CaCO , CaSO4 , NaSO4 in water)
onto a superheated heat transfer surface.

This process can occur under both evaporating

or non-evaporating conditions.

152
 Heat Exchangers

Particulate Fouling
Involves the deposition of particles suspended in
the fluid stream onto the heat transfer surface.
This process includes sedimentation, i.e. settling
under gravitational forces as well as other
deposition mechanisms.

Biofouling
Involves the accumulation of biological
organisms at the heat transfer surface.

153
 Heat Exchangers
Chemical Reaction Fouling
Involves deposits caused by some form of
chemical reaction within the fluid stream itself
(but not with the heat transfer surface).

Polymerization, cracking and coking of

hydrocarbon liquids at high temperature are
prime examples.

Corrosion Fouling
Involves a chemical reaction between the heat
transfer surface and the fluid stream to produce
corrosion products which, in turn, foul the
surface.
154
 Heat Exchangers

Freezing Fouling
Occurs as a result of the crystallization of a
pure liquid or one component from a liquid
phase on to a sub cooled heat transfer surface.

NOTE:
Not all these mechanisms are mutually
exclusive; often more than one mechanism will
be occurring simultaneously.

155
 Heat Exchangers
Vibration in Heat Exchangers

To improve the thermal efficiency, heat

exchangers are commonly equipped with
baffles. These devices produce a low f∆ around
the tube bundles which is favourable for the
heat transport, however, which also may induce
vibrations.

If the amplitudes of the vibrations become too

high, corrosion and erosion of the tubes at the
position of the baffles may occur.

156
 Heat Exchangers

Types of Vibration
1. Galloping - Wake Galloping

2. Aeroelastic Coupling

157
 Heat Exchangers

Cleaning of Heat Exchangers

Five possible cleaning techniques are
recognized for heat exchanger tubes, based on
field testing

1. Hydro blast
Small sections of the sample tube were sent to
a local hydro blast company. The results
showed fairly clean tubes with some pitting;
however, a significant roughness remained to
impede fluid flow

158
 Heat Exchangers

2. Acid Cleaning
A section of tube was sent to a local firm for
acid cleaning utilizing a 12% foaming
hydrochloric acid solution. This technique also
produced a clean tube with pitting continuing,
and surface roughness again was evident

3. Chemical Additive
A sample tube was tested utilizing five different
chemical agents. These chemicals were
ineffective in removing the tenacious mineral
deposits

159
 Heat Exchangers
4. Brushes and Rubber Plugs
Several sample tubes were shot with nylon
brushes and rubber plugs. Both techniques
were ineffective in removing internal tube
deposits.

5. Tube Scrapers
A medium-pressure (150 to 250 psi) water gun
was used to propel spring-loaded metal
scrapers. This technique was used in several
tubes prior to removal from the exchanger for
inspection. The scrapers cleaned down to bare
metal and polished the tube surface for
minimum flow restrictions
160