UNIT – 2

INTRODUCTION TO CELL AND

TISSUES
CELL
Cells are the basic structure and functional unit of the
body. Cells have the capacity to perform all the essential life
functions. They are grouped together to form tissues. Which has a
specialized functions. Different types of tissues are grouped together
to form organs and organs are grouped together to form system.
All living matter are made up of cells. Individual cells
are too small to be seen with the naked eye. They can be seen when
thin slices of tissues are stained in laboratory and magnified by a
microscope.
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hook in 1665.
Now a day, different kinds of cells are investigated through
scientific research. Some organelles or living being has only one
cell called unicellular(e.g Amoeba, bacteria, virus) . The being
which has more than one cell called multicellular (Human being,
animals)
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING MATTER
 Digestion and absorption of food
 Growth and repair
 Respiration
 Excretion
 Movement and locomotion
 Irritability or response to stimuli
 Adaptation
 Reproduction
 Do not remain alive for ever.
2.1 HUMAN CELL

The human body develops from a single cells called zygote .

Which develops from the fusion of ovum(female egg cell)
and the spermatozoon(male cell). Cell division follows.
As seen from electron microscope the cell is divided into 3
parts :-
a) Cell membrane

b) Cytoplasm

c) Nucleus

Cells are covered with a thin membrane called

cell membrane. Inside which number of organelles
suspended in a watery fluid called cytoplasm.
A) CELL MEMBRANE/ PLASMA
MEMBRANE / PLASMALEMMA
The cytoplasm of the cell is surrounded with a fine membrane
called cell membrane. It is semi permeable membrane that
consists of protein threads and lipid . It allows substances to pass
in and out of the membrane through the process of diffusion.
Functions of cell membrane:-
 It provide shape for cell.
 It protect cytoplasm and other cytoplasmic organelles.

 It engulf the nutrients and useful materials inside the all and
removes non useful material.
 Act as an active transport.
 It provides immunological identity , which act as phagocytosis.
B) CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm is a widely fluid inside the cell. It is usually colorless
and soft jelly like substance. It is located between the cell
membrane and the nucleus. It consists of various organelles
which have specific function.
The cytoplasm contain the following structure :-
 Cytoplasmic matrix:- It include fluids materials which consists
water, amino acids, fatty acids, carbohydrates.
 Cytoplasmic organelles:- It is living organelles and includes
mitochondria , Golgi complex , endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosome's, lysosomes, Centrioles.
 Cytoplasmic inclusion:- It include non living organs which are
vacuoles, oil droplets etc.
a. Mitochondria:- The most important organ inside the cytoplasm
is mitochondria. They are sausage shaped structure in
cytoplasm. They are involved in converting ingested food into
energy. So they are also known as power house of the cell.
b. Ribosome:- These appearance has dense rounded granules .
They may be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or lie
independently in the cytoplasm. They are composed of
RNA(Ribonucleic acid) and protein. They synthesis proteins
from amino acids, using RNA as template. It is also known as
factories of protein.
c. Endoplasmic reticulum:- It is an extensive series of
interconnecting membrane canal in the cytoplasm and
opening at the surface of cell. It works as a miniature
circulatory system for the cell. They synthesis lipids ,
proteins and also detoxify some drugs.
Function:-
 It act as transport system inside the cell.
 It synthesis protein fatty acids , hormones.

 It helps in development of nuclear membrane during

cell division.
 It detoxifies the drugs.
d. Gogli apparatus:- It is canal like structure . Protein from
endoplasmic reticulum moves to gogli apparetus .
Where they are package into membrane bound vesicles
called secretory granules . The vesicles are stored and
when needed they move to the plasma membrane and
fuse with it.
Function:-
 It act as temporary storage for protein.
 It helps in synthesis of polysaccharides.
 It helps in production of hormones enzyme and protein.
e. Lysosome:- It consists of membranous sacs. it digest
foreign materials such as microbes. It act as the
digestive system of the cell.
f. Centrososme:- They are the spherical body near the
nucleus .It contains centriole and tiny cylinders. It
plays an important part during cell division.
g. Vacuoles:- They are the clear circular space which
contain waste secreted by the cell . It act as the
temporary storage of waste materials.
C) NUCLEUS
Every cell has a nucleus (except red blood cells). It is a spherical
body in the centre of the cell. It is surrounded by the nucleus
membrane. It consists of a watery fluid inside called
nucleoplasm. It contains the body genetic material (DNA , RNA ,
chromosomes).
Function:-
 It control all the activities of the cell.

 It inheritates different behavior by means 46 chromosomes.

 It controls in cell division.
 It controls the metabolic activities inside the cell.

 It synthesis protein and RNA.

CHROMOSOMES
The nucleus of every human cell contains 46 chromosomes. They
are sausage shaped structure . It contains the basic hereditary
substance which determine the individual characteristics .
eg color of eye , hair etc.
Each chromosomes is one of a pair , one inherited from mother
and one from father . So human cell has 46 chromosomes that
can be arranged as 23 pairs .
The determination of sex depends on chromosome . Female sex
chromosomes are of same shape and size and are called X
chromosomes. Male sex chromosome contain both X and Y
chromosomes.
Beside the sex chromosomes , the remaining 44 chromosomes are
known as autosomes , which determine different behaviour of
children.
DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)
 DNA is a double stranded molecule , which are arrange in a
spiral way . It is made up of two chain of nucleotide which
consists of sugar , phosphate group and a base.
 There are four base called adenine(A), Guanine(G), thymine(T),
Cytosine(C). They are arranged in precise order . DNA carries
huge amount of information that determines all biological
activities of an organism. Synthesis of protein which helps in
building up of new cells. Eg A person has black hair or gray hair
is decided by DNA in the nucleus of cell.
 DNA is found mainly in nucleus in the chromosome. DNA
contains genetic information or genetic code . Hereditary
information is carried in the DNA contained within the
chromosomes in the nucleus . The RNA in the nucleus , which
serve as a messenger.
RNA(RIBONUCLEIC ACID)
RNA is single strained of nucleotides synthesized in the cytoplasm of
the cell. RNA carries hereditary information present in DNA out
from the nucleus to the ribosome in the cytoplasm.
RNA has a similar structure to DNA , Both nucleic acids contain
adenine , Guanine and Cytosine but thymine is replaced by uracil
in RNA .
The hereditary information present in the DNA has to be carried
from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and outside the nucleus is
done by RNA .
RNA is single stranded, DNA is double stranded.
RNA Contain ribosome as its sugar instead of
deoxyribose.
RNA uses uracil instead of thymine as a base.
2.2 CELL DIVISION PROCESS
Many damaged , dead cells can be replaced by growth and
division of similar cells.
Cell division is a process by which a parent cell divides in to two
or more daughter cells. The development of a single. Fertilized
egg to form a complex multicellular organism involves cell
division, growth and progressive specialization for a variety of
function.
The division of human cell takes place in two
different ways, according to site of organ.
i. Mitosis cell division

ii. Meiosis cell division

 MITOSIS CELL DIVISION
The mitosis division was study by walter flemming in 1878. In this
division the main role is played by nucleus. First cell is divided
into two parts then cytoplasm and cell organelles are divided. At
last, cell membrane is divided to form two identical cells.
Mitosis cell division completed in two cycles:-
a. Karyokinesis( Nuclear division)
b. Cytokinesis (Cytoplasm division)
a) Karyokinesis:- The process of division of nucleus into two form
is known as karyokinesis or nuclear division , which is
completed in 5 phase.
i. Interphase
ii. Prophase
iii. Metaphase
iv. Anaphase
v. Telophase

b) Cytokinesis:- The division of cytoplasm is known as cytokinesis.

i. Interphase:-
 This is a long phase and also known as resting phase .
 In this phase, chromosomes is matured.
 By the end of this phase , each chromosome will stay
longitudinally into chromotid , which remain attached
to each other at the centromere.
ii. Prophase:-
 This is the first stage of mitosis.
 Chromosome become thick and short , nucleolus and nuclear
membrane are gradually disappeared .
 The chromosome become straight, short, thick, and splitting into
two chromatid.
 Two chromatids are attached together at one point by centromere.
 At the end of this phase , centrole divide into two ,one on each
pole of cell.
iii. Metaphase:-
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus completely
disappeared . The chromosomes come to equatorial plane of
the cell. The centromere of each chromose becomes visible.
 The spindle fibers appear from two opposite pole and get
attached to centromere of each chromatid.
 At this stage , each chromosome seems rod – shaped with two
distinct chromatids .
 It takes about 15 min.
iv. Anaphase:-
 Centromere of each chromosome divided into two .
 Each half repel to each other and chromatids move apart
towards opposite poles of the spindle.
 When the chromatids reach the pole , they form two separate
but identical groups.
 This phase complete within 10 minutes.
v. Telophase:-
 They newly arrived groups of chromosomes become surrounded by
new nuclear membrane and gradually become less visible .
 The threads like chromosome spread around the nucleus .
 The nucleolus also reappears resuming the normal form of nucleus
similar to prophase.
 IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS CELL DIVISION
i. It helps in replacing the old and worn out cells.
ii. Injury or wound is healing by mitosis.
iii. It is essential for growth and development of multicellular
organisms.
iv. It helps to regenerate the parts.
MEIOSIS CELL DIVISION
Meiosis cell division occurs in the reproductive cells whereby chromosome
number of the parent cell reduces to half in each daughter cell during
gamatogenesis.
As in mitosis , meiosis cell division may divide into two cycle.
a. Karyokinesis
b. Cytokinesis

The meiosis completed into two successive division:

i. Meiosis I (Reductional / Heterotypic)
ii. Meiosis II (Homotypic division)

Mitosis rarely lasts more than 2 hour whereas meiosis cycle may
take days or weeks to produce the gametes or sex cells.
 Meiosis I :- There is no division of centromere. The nucleus
undergoes the following complicated phase to reduce the
chromosome number into half. Meiosis I can be broken down into
four sub stages:
 Prophase I
 Metaphase I
 Anaphase I and
 Telophase I

 Meiosis II can be broken down into four sub stages:

 Prophase II
 Metaphase II
 Anaphase II and
 Telophase II
 Prophase I:- It is a prolonged phase of five sub
phases.
a. Leptotene
b. Zygotene
c. Pachytene
d. diplotene
e. diakinesis
 A) LEPTOTENE

 This is first stage .

 The chromosomes are long and slender and definite number of
bead like granules called chromosomes are stayed along the
length.
 B) ZYGOTENE
 In this phase the homologous chromosome half
received from paternal side and other half from the
maternal side undergo pairing throughout their whole
length forming bivalent. This phenomenon of pairing
without fusion is known as “synapsis”.
C) PACHYTENE
 The chromosomes become short and thick . Each
bivalent chromosome splits . Each bivalent
chromosome splits longitudinally into two chromatids
which remain attached to each other by a centromere.
D) DIPLOTENE
 Repulsive force developes between the chromatids of
homologous chromosomes, as a result chromosomes separete
from each other except at one or two points where they remain
attached . This point of attachment where “Crossing over”
takes place is known as “chiasmata”.
E) DIAKINESIS
 The short and thick chromosomes appear like ‘O’ or ‘X’
due to the formation of chiasmata. Nuclear membrane
and nucleolus disappear.
METAPHASE I
 In this phase all chromosomes come to lie at
equatorial plane . The tractile fibers appear from two
opposite poles and get attached to the centromere of
each chromosome.
ANAPHASE I
 One chromosomes from each pair repels and moves
towards the opposite pole along the tractile fibers.
TELOPHASE I
 Half number of chromosomes ,each with two chromatids
forms a compact grows
up in each pole.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
reappear.
 MEIOSIS II
 Each nucleus after a few rests passes division II that is mitotic in
nature.
 Telophase I becomes prophase II for division II.
 In metaphase II, chromosomes having two chromatids comes to
lie at equatorial plane and the spindle fibers appear.
 Chromatids, which become chromosomes, move to the opposite
poles along the tractile fibers.
 In anaphase II, it form four individual groups of chromosomes.
 In telophase II, nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear in each
cell to form four haploid daughter cells, which are separately by
cytokinesis.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
 It keeps the number of chromosomes constant in a
species.
 Important for the continuity of species.
 Variation in living things is due to meiosis.
 Variation helps the breeders in improving the races of
useful animals.
2.3 TISSUES
 Tissue is define as an organization of similarly
specialized cells that together perform certain special
function.
OR,
 The tissue of the body consist of large number of cells

and they are classified according to the size , shape

and functions of these cells .
 It is also defined as “the collection of cells that

frequently have similar morphologic(structure of

animal and plant) characteristic and function. ”
 Tissues are formed by cells.
 In between the cells there are substance called matrix
which usually contains glycoproteins (collagen )
secreted by cells.
 Matrix formed by strong fiber outside the cell.
 In tissue where cell are closely situated there is less
amount of matrix & Where cells are wide a part more
matrix are present.
TYPES OF TISSUE
Primarily there are four basic types:-
A. Epithelial tissue

B. Connective tissue
C. Muscle tissue

D. Nervous tissue
A) EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 This group of tissues is found covering the body and lining
cavities , hollow organs and tubes.
 Adhesion between these cells is strong forming cellular sheets
that cover the surface of body & lines its cavities , alimentary
canal, genitourinary tract, respiratory tract & glands.
 There are no blood vessels in the epithelial tissue, thus oxygen
and food diffuse into the epithelial cells from the capillaries of
the connective tissue , which is usually underneath the epithelial
tissue.
 There is a membrane between the epithelium and the connective
tissue known as the basement membrane . This membrane is a
thin layer of dead materials, formed partly by epithelial and
partly by connective tissue.
FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Lining / covering of surface(e.g. skin)
 Secretion(e.g. epithelial cells of glands)
 Absorption(e.g. the intestine)
 Sensation(e.g. Neuroepithelium)
 Contractility(e.g. myoepithelial cells)
 There are two types of epithelial tissue.
a. Simple epithelial(Single layer of cells)
b. Stratified or compound epithelial tissue(Several
layers of cells)
A. SIMPLE EPITHELIAL
 It is formed by single layer of cells.
 These cells are usually found on absorption or secretory
surface but it is never found in outer surface.
 It is divided into four types. The types are named according
to the shape of the tissue , which differ according to their
function .

i. Squamous / pavement epithelial(flat and irregular)

ii. Cubical/Cuboidal epithelial(Square)
iii. Columnar epithelial(Long and narrow)
iv. Ciliated epithelial
 I. SQUAMOUS / PAVEMENT EPITHELIAL
 It is composed of a single layer of flattened cells.
 The cells fit closely together like flat stones forming a very smooth
membrane .
 The function of this epithelium is to provide a thin , smooth and
inactive lining to the
Heart – Where it is known as endocardium
Blood vessels Where it is known as endothelium
lymph nodes.
Alveoli of the lungs
Lining of the collecting ducts of nephrone in the kidneys.
 Various substance can be diffused and filtrated the thin and smooth
epithelium.
II. CUBICAL/CUBOIDAL EPITHELIAL
 This consists of cube shaped cells fitting consists of
together lying on a basement membrane.
 It forms the kidney tubules(Proximal & distal
convoluted) and is found in some glands.
 Cuboidal epithelium is actively involved in secretion ,
absorption and excretion.
III. COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL
 It consists of single layer of rectangular shaped cell with
cylindrical on a basement membrane.
 Found in the lining of the organs of alimentary tract(stomach) &
consists of mixture of cells.
 Some absorb the products of digestion and other secrete mucus
(Mucus is a thick sticky substance secreted by modified columnar
cells called “Goblet cells”)
 IV. CILIATED EPITHELIAL
 It consists of columnar cells which have fine hair like process
called cillia in their free border.
 They are usually found in lining of uterine tube , respiratory
tract.
 These cillia moves like a wave which propels the contents of
tubes which they lie in one direction only.
 In uterine tube they propel ova towards uterine & in respiratory
tract, they propel mucus towards the throat.
B) STRATIFIED OR COMPOUND EPITHELIAL TISSUE

 It consists of several layer of cells .

 Here , the basement membrane are usually absent.
 It is usually found superficially (inner body structure)
 It’s main function is to protect underlyning structures.
 There are mainly two types.

i. Stratified squamous epithelial

 Keratinized stratified epithelium
 Non- keratinized stratified epithelium

ii. Transitional epithelial

i. Stratified squamous epithelial
 It consists of a number layer of cells.
 In the deepest layer , the cell are usually columnar or cuboidal shaped & as
they grow towards the surface , they become flattened.
 Stratified squamous epithelium can be divided into two according to its lining.

 Keratinized stratified epithelium:-

 It is found in dry surface i.e Skin, hair and nails.
 The superficial cells are flattened which usually synthesize a protein called
keratin which forms a protective layer that prevent the drying of the under
living cell.
 The surface layer of skin is rubbed off and is replaced from below. This
arrangement works as an excellent barrier against different types of injury &
water loss.

 Non- keratinized stratified epithelium:-

 It is found on wet surface that may be subjected to ‘Wear and tear’ Such as the
conjunctiva of the eyes and the lining of the mouth, tongue , esophagus,
pharynx, larynx, Vagina, anal canal, membranous urethra, penis etc
ii. Transitional epithelial
 This is composed of several layers of pear cells.
 It is found in lining the pelvis, kidney, ureters and urinary
bladder.
 It forms a protective barriers. For eg. It prevents urine from
passing into underlining tissue & allows for stretching as the
bladder fill.
 B. CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Connective tissue is the most abundant(present in great quantity)

tissue in the body.
 The connective tissue cell more widely separated from each other
than in epithelial tissue, and intercellular substance (Matrix) is
present in considerably large amount.
 There are usually fibers present in the matrix , which may be a
semisolid jelly- like consistency or dense and rigid, depending
upon the position and function of the tissue.
 The fibers form a supporting network for the cells to attach to.
 Most types of connective tissue have good blood supply.
 Major functions of connective tissue are:-
 Binding and structural support
 Protection
 Transport

 Insulation
CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Fibroblasts:-A cell from which connective tissue
develops.
 Macrophages:- A large phagocytes ,some are fixed and
other circulate in the blood .
 Plasma cells:- A cell that develops from a B
lymphocytes in reaction to a specific antigen : found in
bone marrow and sometimes in the blood.
 Mast cells:- A large connective tissue cell that contains
heparin and serotonin which are release in allergic
reaction or in response to injury or inflammation.
 Fat cells:- A cells that composed of fat .(Adipose cell)
 TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES
1. Connective tissue proper
a. Areolar tissue
b. Adipose tissue
c. Fibrous tissue
d. Elastic tissue
e. Lymphoid tissue

2. Skeletal tissue
a. Bone
b. Cartilage
i. Hyaline cartilage
ii. White fibrous cartilage
iii. Yellow elastic cartilage
3. Fluid tissue
a. Blood
b. Lymph
 1) CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
A) AREOLAR TISSUE
 This is the most widely distributed (found in almost every part of the
body).
 The matrix is semisolid with many fibroblasts and some fat cells.
 Mast cells and macrophages widely separated by elastic and collagen
fibers.
 It provide elasticity and tensile strength.
 It connects and supports other tissues.
 For example
 Under the skin
 Between muscles
 Supporting blood vessels and nerves
 In alimentary canal
 In glands supporting secretory cells.
 B) ADIPOSE TISSUE
 It consists of a collection of fat cells, containing fat globules, in
a matrix of areolar tissue.
 There are two types:- White and brown
 White adipose tissue:-it makes up 20 – 25 % of body weight in
well nourished adult. It is found in supporting the kidney, eyes,
and under the skin, where act as thermal insulator
(prevents heat from moving from one place to another).
 Brown adipose tissue:- It is present relatively small quantities
situated mainly between the scapula in the neck and in the wall
of the large blood vessels of the trunk. It produce less energy
and considerably more heat than other fat, contributing to
maintain the body temperature . In adult it is in small amount &
prevent obesity.
 C) FIBROUS TISSUE
 This is due the dense and strong connective tissue made up
mainly of closely packed bundle of collagen fibers with very
little matrix.
 Fibrocytes are few in number and are found lying in rows
between the bundle of fibers .
 Fibrous tissue is found:-
 Ligaments(connects bones to other bones), which bind bone
together
 Periosteum, Outer protective covering of bone
 Outer covering of kidney, Lymph nodes and the brain
 Muscle fascia(Muscle sheath that bind the muscle to bone)
D) ELASTIC TISSUE
 It has the capacity of stretching and recoiled.
 There are few cells and the matrix consists mainly of masses of
elastic fibers secreted by fibroblasts.
 It is found in organs where alternation of shape is required e.g
Large blood vessels, epiglottis, trachea, bronchi, and external ears.
E) LYMPHOID TISSUE
 Lymphoid tissue has a semi- solid matrix with fine branching
reticulum fibers.(Type of connective tissue composed of collagen
secreted by reticular cells )
 The highly specialized cells are called lymphocytes.
 They are found in blood and in lymphoid tissue of lymph node,
spleen, palatine and pharyngeal tonsil, vermiform appendix,
solitary and aggregated nodes of small intestine, Wall of large
intestine.
2. Skeletal tissue:- Skeletal connective tissue consists of bone &
cartilages .
a. Bone:- Bone is a specialized connective tissue which stores a
calcium & phosphorus. This provide bones with their
characteristic strength and rigidity. Bone also has considerable
capacity for growth in the first two decades(period of 10 years)
of life, and for regeneration throughout life. It consist of bone
marrow which produce blood cells .
b. Cartilage:- Cartilage is a modified flexible connective tissue
that forms a part of our skeleton. They are made up of
specialized cell called chondroblast which produces a large
amount of extracellular matrix , composed of collagen & elastic
fibers. They are three types.
i. Hyaline cartilage
ii. White fibrous cartilage
iii. Yellow elastic cartilage
i. Hyaline cartilage:- Hyaline cartilage is a smooth bluish- white
tissue. The chondrocytes are in small group within cell nests and the
matrix is solid and smooth . Hyaline cartilage provides flexibility ,
support and smooth surface for movement at joints. It is found:
 On the ends of long bones that forms joints
 Forming the costal cartilages, which attach the ribs to the sternum.
 Forming part of the larynx, trachea and bronchi
ii. White fibrous cartilage:- This consists of dense masses of white
fibers in matrix similar to that of hyaline cartilage with the cells
widely dispersed . It is a tough, slightly flexible, supporting tissue
found:
 Intervertebral disc, semi lunar cartilage, The hip and shoulder joints
iii. Yellow elastic cartilage:- This consists of yellow elastic fiber
running through the solid matrix. The cell lies between the
matrixes. It is found in the pinna of the ear, epiglottis, laryngeal
cartilages
3. Fluid tissue
a. Blood :- It is a liquid connective tissue that consists of cell
which flows in a regular unidirectional moments propelled by
rhythmic contraction of heart within a closed circulatory
system . It is composed of blood cells (RBC, WBC, platelets &
plasma)
b. Lymph:- It is modified tissue fluid found in lymphatic vessels.
It is an accessory route for removal of excess fluid from tissue
space into circulation. It transport protein, fatty acids,
cholesterol from intestine. They also carry bacteria & other
organism to nearest lymph node where they can be handle by
lymphocytes & microphase .
 C) MUSCLE TISSUE
 Muscles tissue consists of elongated cell called muscles fibers.
 About 40 – 50% of the body is muscle tissue. It is composed of
75% fluid and 25% solid matter.
 This tissue are able to contract and relax, providing body
movement , maintain posture, generates and provide protection.
 Muscle contraction requires an adequate blood supply to provide
sufficient oxygen , calcium and nutrients and remove waste
products. When muscle contract , it become shorter and thicker.

Muscle tissue can be divided into three types :-

i. Voluntary or striated or skeletal or striped muscle.
ii. Involuntary or smooth or non striated or visceral or unstriped
muscle
iii. Cardiac muscle
I) VOLUNTARY OR STRIATED OR SKELETAL
OR STRIPED MUSCLE.
 It is called voluntary because contraction is under the control of
will.
 This type is described as skeletal because it forms those muscle
that move the bones, striated because striation (stripes) can be
seen on microscopic examination and voluntary as it is under ,
conscious control.
 Voluntary muscle is cylindrical in shaped and may be as long as
35 cm. Each cell commonly called a fiber, has several nuclei
situated just under the sarcolemma(plasma membrane of the
cell). The muscle fibers lie parallel to one another .
 Every physical action that a person consciously performs (e.g.
speaking, walking, or writing) requires skeletal muscle.
II) INVOLUNTARY OR SMOOTH OR NON
STRIATED OR VISCERAL OR UNSTRIPED
MUSCLE
 They are called involuntary muscle as they are not under the
control of the our will. Smooth muscle has the intrinsic ability
to contract and relax.
 It is found in the walls of blood and lymph vessels, the
alimentary tract, the respiratory tract, the urinary bladder, the
biliary tract and the uterus.
 They are spindle shaped with only one central nucleus. There
is no distinct sarcolemma but a very fine membrane
surrounded each fiber.
 Muscle fiber is thickers in middle with each end tapering to
point forming spindle shaped.
 III) CARDIAC MUSCLE
 It is present exclusively in the heart . It is not under voluntary
control. When seen from microscope , cross- striped
characteristics of voluntary muscle can be seen.
 Each cell has central nucleus and has one or more branches
 The end of the cell and their branches are in very close contact
with the end branches of adjacent cells.
 Microscopically these joints or intercalated disc , can be seen as
line that are thicker and darker than the ordinary cross- stripes.
The arrangement gives cardiac muscle the appearance of a sheet
of muscle rather than a very large number of individual fibres.
 A wave of contraction spreads from cell to cell across the
intercalated discs, which means that cells do not need to be
stimulated individually.
 D. NERVOUS TISSUE
Nervous tissue is made up of highly specialized tissue that has the
properly of conducting impulses from one part of the body to another.
It is composed of neurons & neuralgia.
 Neurons:- Nervous are system which various in shape & size. The

differ from other cells as they contain axon, dendrites and cell body.
They carry impulses which are tiny electrical charges passing from
the one part to another part of the body. Dendrite carries impulses to
cell & axon carries impulses away from cells.
 Neuralgia:- they are supporting cells present within the brain & the

spinal cord. It provides support to neurons and help in its normal

functioning. They are good insulator .Four main function :-
 To surround neurons and hold them in place.
 To supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons.

 To insulate one neuron from another.

 To destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons.
2.4 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MEMBRANES,
GLAND, CARTILAGES
MEMBRANE
Membrane are the flat sheets of tissue that covers or line organs or
a part of body. The main membranes of our body are:-

 Mucous membrane
 Serous membrane
 Synovial membrane
MUCOUS MEMBRANE
 This is the moist lining of the alimentary ,respiratory and
genitourinary tract which is sometimes referred to as the
mucosa.
 The membrane surface consists of epithelial cells, some of
which produce a secretion called mucus.
 Organs lined by mucous membrane have a moist slippery
surface .
 Mucous protect the lining membrane from drying , and
mechanical and chemical injury.
 In respiratory tract it traps inhaled foreign particles, preventing
them from entering the alveoli of the lungs.
 SEROUS MEMBRANE
 Serous membrane, or serosa, secrete serous watery fluid. They
consists of a double layer of loose areolar connective tissue
lined by simple squamous epithelium.
 The parietal layer lines a cavity and the visceral layer surrounds
organs (the viscera) with the cavity. The two layers are
separated by serous fluid secreted by the epithelium.
 There are three sites where serous membrane are found:-
 The pleural lining the thoracic cavity and surrounding the lungs.
 The pericardium lining the pericardial cavity and surrounding
the heart.
 The peritoneum lining the abdominal cavity and surrounding
abdominal organs.
 The serous fluid between the visceral and parietal layers enable an
organ to glide freely within the cavity without being damaged by
friction between it and adjacent organs. For example, the heart
changes its shape and size during each beat and friction damage is
prevented by the arrangement of pericardium and its serous fluid.
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE
 The membrane lines the cavity of movable joints and surrounds
tendons that could be injured by rubbing against bones . E.g
over the wrist joint.
 It is not an epithelial membrane , but instead consists of areolar
connective tissue and elastic fibers.
 Synovial membrane secretes clear , sticky, oily synovial fluid,
which lubricates and nourishes the joints.
GLAND
 A specialized types of epithelial cell, those producing special
secretion is known as glands.
 Glands produce and secrete hormones, chemical substances
produced in the body that regulates the body’s growth,
metabolism(the physical and chemical process of the body) and
sexual development and function.
 Glands discharge their product on to the epithelial surface of an
organ through a duct, is called exocrine glands.
 The secretion of exocrine gland is called enzymes.
 Group of cells that have become isolated from epithelial
surfaces discharges their secretion directly into blood and
lymph ; these are called endocrine glands or ductless glands.
There secretion is called hormone.
 Examples of exocrine glands
include sweat, salivary, mammary, ceruminous, lacrimal, sebaceou
s, and mucous.
 The liver and pancreas are both exocrine and endocrine glands;
they are exocrine glands because they secrete products—
bile and pancreatic juice—into the gastrointestinal tract through a
series of ducts, and endocrine because they secrete other
substances directly into the bloodstream.
 According to size, shape and complexity of structure, the exocrine
gland can be divided into 3 types:-
1. Simple tubular gland
2. Alveolar gland
3. Branched tubular gland
 simple tubular gland:-
one of the many multicellular glands with only one duct 
and a tube-shaped part, such as various glands within the
epithelium of the intestine.
 Alveolar gland:-

A gland in which the secretory unit(s) has a saclike form 
and an obvious lumen; for example, the active mammary gland.
 Branched tubular gland:-

one of the many multicellular glands with one excretory 
duct from two or more tube
shaped secretory branches, such as some of the gastric glands.
 The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal
gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid
gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus and adrenal glands.
 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
 Important question
 Different between
 mitosis and meiosis
 DNA and RNA
 Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle
 State the function of epithelial tissue
 State the function of connective tissue
 Explain the structure and function of human cell.
 Explain mitosis cell division process/ explain the phases of mitosis
cell division.
 Draw a well label diagram of human cell.
 List and explain different types of cell found in connective tissue.
 What do you mean by cartilage ? Explain its type.
 What do you mean by membrane? List and explain its types.
Define/ short notes
 Mitosis

 Meiosis

 Tissue

 Human cell

 Cell membrane

 Cytoplasm

 Nucleus

 Endoplasmic reticulum

 Mitochondria

 Ribosome

 Lysosome

 Centrosome

 Golgi apparatus

 Centrosome

 Vacuoles

 Chromosome
\

 DNA
 RNA
 Cell division
 Tissue
 Nervous tissue
 Cartilage
 Membrane
 Elastic tissue
 Adipose tissue
 Mucous membrane
 Serous membrane
 Synovial membrane
 Glands