UNIT 1

System approach
to
The Human body
1.1

The term anatomy is derived from a Greek word “Anatomy”

which means “To cut off” or “Cutting up” or “ To dissect”
Anatomy is a discipline or a field of scientific study dealing
with all branches of knowledge which are concerned with the
study of bodily structure.
Anatomy is the branch of biology(Living organisms) concerned
with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts
Physiology is the branch of biology that deals with the normal
functions of living organisms and their parts.
Herophilus of chalceden is called the “Father of anatomy”. He
was a Greek physician and was one of the first person to dissect
the human body.
Sub division of Anatomy
Surface Anatomy (superfacial anatomy or visual anatomy):- The
study of the surface feature of bone (Bone landmark)and of other
structure(eg ligament) that one visible or palpable (Prescribe to
touch) is called surface anatomy .The fundamental aim of surface
anatomy is the visualization of structure , which lies beneath the
skin and is hidden by it. Surface anatomy is the basis of the
physical examination of the body that form part of physical
diagnosis.
OR,
It is the study of the external feature of the body . it deals with the
anatomical feature that can be studies by sight , without dissection.
As such ,it is a branch of gross anatomy , along with endoscopic and
radiological anatomy.
Living Anatomy:- The study of the living human organism in
relation to surrounding parts.
Microscopic Anatomy OR Histology:- The study of the makeup
of the tissue and organs of the body under the microscope.
Radiographic Anatomy or Radiology:- The study of structure
and function of the body by using radiological technique.
Neuro - anatomy OR neurosciences:- The study of structure and
function of the nervous system is called neuroanatomy
Developmental anatomy or embryology:- The study of growth
and development of an human body.
Regional anatomy:- The study of all the structure in one area or
region, including their relationship to each other . In regional
anatomy of the body is divided into following regions:- a)
Thorax b) Abdomen c) Perineum and pelvis d) Lower limbs e)
Back f) Upper limbs g) Head and neck.
Physical anthropology:- It is the branch of science dealing with
the characteristics of the different human races, or the study about
characteristics of human race.
Cadaveric anatomy:- The study of dead bodies by naked eye is
known as cadaveric anatomy. It is also known as postmortem
study , which helps to know about different organs of the body.
Pathological anatomy:- The study of diseased organ or tissue.
Suffix:- Suffixes are added to the end of an existing word.
Word Suffix Newword
Child ish Childish
-ectomy(Cut, Cut out)=Appendectomy, Lobotomy, Dissect
Cut out appendix, Cut out cerebral (brain) lobe
ectop-(Displaced)=Ectopic pregnancy(Displaced pregnancy
(embryo implant outside uterus – usually oviduct)

Prefix:- Prefixes are added to the beginning of an existing

word in order to create a new word with a different meaning.
Word Prefix Newword
Happy un Unhappy
brady-(Slow) = Bradycardia(Slower than normal heart rate)
bronch-(Airway)= Bronchitis(Airway inflammation)
1.2 Terminology of various system
Anaesthesiology:- It is the study of loss of feeling or sensation ,
especially pain.
Cardiology:-It is the study of heart and its function.
Cytology:- It is the study of structure and function of the cells.
Dentistry:- It is the study of teeth and oral cavity.
Dermatology:- It is the study of skin and its abnormality.
Geriatric:- It is the study about old age , problem of aging and
elderly.
Gastrology:- It is the study of structure and function of stomach.
Gastro-enterology:- It is the study of disease and problem of
stomach.
Gynecology:- It is the study of disease of genital tract in female.
Histology:- It is the study of structure, function and composition
of tissue.
Hematology:- It is the study of blood and blood forming tissue.
Immunology:- It is the study of different aspect of immunity.
Medicine:- It is the study of drug , art and science of treating
disease or non surgical method of treatment.
Nephrology:- It is the study of structure and function of kidney
and its disease.
Neurology:- It is the study about nervous system.
Obstetrics:- It is the study of pregnancy, labour and pueroerium.
Oncology:- It is the study of malignant cells or cancer cells.
Opthalmology:- It is the study of eye.
Otorhinolaryngology:- It is the study of ear, nose and throat.
Paediatrics:- It is the study of care, development and disease of
children.
Pathology:- It is the study of disease organism and disease
process.
Physiology:- It is the study of body function.
Physiotherapy:- It is the study of physical therapy or exercise.
Pharmacy:- It is the study of preparation, dispensing, and
utilization of drugs.
Pharmaceutical:- It is the study of pertaining to pharmacy or
drugs.
Plastic surgery:- It is the study of corrective surgery or cosmetic
surgery.
Psychiatry :- It is the study of mental health and illness.
Radiology:- It is the study of radiant energy in diagnostic and
treatment of disease.
Urology:- It is the study of urinary system in female and
genitourinary system in male.
Venerology;- It is the study of ventral disease(Propagated by
sexual intercourse, sexually transmitted disease)
Endocrinology:- It is the study of endocrine glands and its disease.
Toxocology:- It is the study of poison, its nature , effect and its
antidotes.
Orthopedic:- It is the study of bone and its abnormality.
Neonatology:- It is the study of neonate, ie birth to 28 days of
living baby.
Microbiology:- It is the study of Microorganism that cannot be
seen with naked eye.
Physics:- It is the study of physical structure and its nature.
Chemistry:- It is the study of Chemical matter.
Biology:- It is the study of living organism.
Pharmacology:- It is the study of drugs.
Embryology:- It is the study of the progressive changes which
occur from the time of fertilization of the ovum by the sperm until
the matured organism is formed.
 1.3 Body cavity
 A body cavity is any fluid-filled space in a multicellular organism
other than those of vessels (such as blood vessels and lymph
vessels). The term usually refers to the space located between an
animal’s outer covering (epidermis), and the outer lining of the gut
cavity, where internal organs develop.
The body maintains its internal organization by means of
membranes, sheaths(A protecting covering), and other structures
that separate compartments.
The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior)
cavity are the largest body compartments.
These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and
the ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the size and
shape of the organs as they perform their functions.
The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can
expand and contract without distorting other tissues or
disrupting the activity of nearby organs.
The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities and their subdivisions. The dorsal cavity includes the
cranial and spinal cavities.
The dorsal cavity:-The dorsal cavity consist of cranial and vertabal
canal.
The cranial cavity is a large, bean-shaped cavity filling most of the
upper skull where the brain is located.( cranial cavity, enclosed by the
skull and contains the brain)
The vertebral cavity is a very narrow, thread-like cavity running from
the cranial cavity down the entire length of the spinal cord.( spinal
canal, enclosed by the spine and contains the spinal cord. )

The ventral cavity:- The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main
subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.
Thoracic cavity :-The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart,
which is located in the mediastinum. It consists of three cavities that
fill the interior area of the chest. (Thoracic cavity, enclosed by the
ribcage and contains the lungs and heart.)
The two pleural cavities are situated on both sides of the body
The superior mediastinum is a wedge-shaped cavity located
between the superior regions of the two thoracic cavities.
The pericardial cavity within the mediastinum is located at the
center of the chest below the superior mediastinum. The
pericardial cavity roughly outlines the shape of the heart.

Abdominopelvic cavity:- The diaphragm divides the thoracic

and the abdominal cavities. The abdominopelvic cavity is the
largest cavity in the body. Although no membrane physically
divides the abdominopelvic cavity.
The abdominal cavity:- It occupies the entire lower half of the
trunk, anterior to the spine. abdominal cavity, enclosed by the
ribcage and abdominal cavity contains the kidneys, ureters,
stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
The pelvic cavity:-Anterior to the buttocks, is the pelvic cavity.
The pelvic cavity is funnel shaped and is located inferior and
anterior to the abdominal cavity. pelvic cavity, enclosed by the
pelvis and contains bladder, anus and reproductive system.
1.4 Anatomical Position :-
 Body is standing straight ,facing
forward, upper limbs at side and
palms facing forward right and left
refer to "right" and "left" of the
body in position.
 The erect position of the body with 
the face directed forward, the arms 
at the side, and the palms of the
hands facing forward, used as
a reference in describing the
 relation of body parts to one another.
Terms of relationship
Anterior:-At or near the front of the body (front view)
Posterior:-At or near the back of the body (back view)

Superior:-Toward the head/upper part of a structure (bird’s-eye

view, looking down)
Inferior:-Away from the head/lower part of a structure (bottom
view, looking up)
 
Lateral:-Farther from midline (Left and Right)
Medial:-Nearer to midline (center)
Terms of comparision:-
Palmer:- The palm (the grasping side) of the hand.
Dorsal:- ( meaning "back") surface of an organism refers to the
back.
Ventral:- (meaning "belly") surface refers to the front, or lower
side, of an organism.
Proximal:-Nearer to the origination of a structure
Distal:-Farther from the origination of a structure
Superficial:-Close to the surface of the body
Deep:-Away from the surface of the body.
Cranial :- meaning "skull" or "head".
Caudal:- The end of an organism, , meaning "tail"
Anatomical position (Position of the body) 
Supine position:- Lying down position with face directed upward.
Prone position:- Lying down position with face directed
downward.
Lateral position:- Lying down position with one sided turning of
the body.
Sims position:-Left lateral position and the feet is extended along
the back , right arm is in front of the patient.
Fowlers position:- In this position, the patient is in the semi sitting
in which the head of the bed is elevated at least 45- 60 degree
angle.
Semi fowlers position:- In this position the patient is in the semi
sitting in which the head of the bed is raised approximately 30 – 60
degree angle.
Trendelenburg position:-Patient lies in his back. In this position the
foot of the beds is elevated but the patient is not flexed at the
waist. Foot of the bed may be elevated (45 degree angle) on
blocks.
Lithotomy position:- Lying supine and the buttocks at the edge of
the table , the hips and knees fully fixed and the feet strapped in
position.
Dorsal recumbent position:- Lying down with both legs separated ,
knees fixed and soles of the feet resting flat on the bed, close to the
buttock.
Sitting position:- Sitting upright in the chair or on the side of the
examining table or bed.
Erect or standing position:- Normal standing with soles of the feet
facing ground.
Orthopaedic position:-In this position , the patient is sitting up in
bed at 90 degree angle. Sometimes resulting forward supported by
pillow on over bed table.
Knee chest position:-The patients weight of the body is supported
by knees and chest with abdomen raised, head turned to one side,
and arm flexed and rest alongside the patients heads. The knees are
flexed so that the thighs are at right angle to bed as they rest on
bed the patients buttocks are lifted high. A pillow is placed under
the head.
 An anatomical plane
It is a hypothetical plane used to transect the human body, in order
to describe the location of structures or the direction of
movements. In human and animal anatomy, the basic planes are
used:
The sagittal plane
The coronal plane
The transverse plane or axial plane
Median plane
Coronal Plane:- Divides body into front and back portions or right
angle to the median plane , dividing it into anterior and posterior
portion. (Anterior-front, Posterior-back) (Ventral-front, Dorsal-
back)
Sagittal Plane:- It is plane parallel to the sagittal suture or medial
plane.
Transverse Plane:- It is divides the body into cranial and caudal
(head and tail) portions. Divides body into top and bottom
portions (superior-head; inferior-feat)
Medial plane:- A medial plane also called a midsagittal plane is
used to describe the sagittal plane as it bisects the body vertically
through the midline , dividing the body exactly in left and right
side. The term parasigittal plane is used to refer to any plane
parallel to the sagittal and median plane.
Section through the Body
Longitudinal section:- Run lengthwise in the direction of the long
axis of the body or any of its parts.
Vertical section:-This is the same as longitudinal section except that
they denote that the section is taken through the body when it is the
anatomical position. Vertical section pass toward the vertex of the
skull.
Transverse section:- Cuts at right angle to the longitudinal axis of
the body or its parts.
Oblique section:- They slant or deviate from the perpendicular or the
horizontal.
1.5 Terms of movement:-
Range of motion (or ROM), is the linear or angular distance that a
moving object may normally travel while properly attached to
another . It is also called range of travel (or ROT).
Range of motion exercises
Physical and occupational therapy can help to improve joint
function by focusing on range of motion exercises. The goal of
these exercises is to gently increase range of motion while
decreasing pain, swelling, and stiffness. There are three types of
range of motion exercises:
 
passive range of motion (or PROM) - Therapist or equipment
moves the joint through the range of motion with no effort from
the patient.
active assistive range of motion (or AAROM) - Patient uses the
muscles surrounding the joint to perform the exercise but requires
some help from the therapist or equipment (such as a strap).
active range of motion (or AROM) - Patient performs the exercise
to move the joint without any assistance to the muscles
surrounding the joint.
 Flexion describes a bending movement that decreases the angle
between a segment and its proximal segment. flexion refers to
movement in the anterior direction.
Extension is the opposite of flexion, describing a straightening
movement that increases the angle between body parts. When a
joint can move forward and backward, such as the neck and trunk,
extension refers to movement in the posterior direction.
Abduction and adduction refer to motions that move a structure
away from or towards the centre of the body . Abduction refers to a
motion that pulls a structure or part away from the midline of the
body.
Adduction refers to a motion that pulls a structure or part toward
the midline of the body, or towards the midline of a limb.
Elevation refers to movement in a superior direction.
Depression refers to movement in an inferior direction, the
opposite of elevation.
Rotation
Rotation of body parts is referred to as internal or external,
referring to rotation towards or away from the center of the body.
Internal rotation (or medial rotation) refers to rotation towards the
axis of the body.
External rotation (or lateral rotation) refers to rotation away from
the center of the body
Circumduction:- (Movement of a part in
a circular direction.)
Circumduction refers to a conical movement of a body
part, such as a ball and socket joint or the eye.
Circumduction is a combination of flexion, extension,
adduction and abduction.
Circumduction can be best performed at ball and socket
joints, such as the hip and shoulder, but may also be
performed by other parts of the body such as fingers,
hands, feet, and head.

Opposition:-
The action of opposing, resisting, or combating.
Pronation and supination
Pronation and supination refer most generally to
assuming prone or supine positions, but often they are
used in a specific sense referring to rotation of the
forearm or foot so that in the standard anatomical
position the palm or sole is facing anteriorly (supination)
or posteriorly (pronation).

Supination:- Rotates the radius of the forearm laterally

around its long axis.
Pronation:- The palm of the hand faces posteriorly and
dorsum faces anteriorly.
Inversion refer to movements of the sole of the foot
away from (eversion) or towards (inversion) the
midline of the body.
Eversion is the movement of the sole of the foot away
from the median plane.
Important question
Define / Short term
Anatomy
Physiology
Anatomical position
Anatomical plane
Body cavity
Dorsal cavity
Ventral cavity
Range of motion